Equity

Matthew Lynch published in Equity, Policy & Reform

How should we teach about social justice in a post-(Michael) Brown world?

**The Edvocate is pleased to publish guest posts as way to fuel important conversations surrounding P-20 education in America. The opinions contained within guest posts are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official opinion of The Edvocate or Dr. Matthew Lynch.**

A guest post by Beth Ellor

Picture a 5th Grade classroom in Chinatown on New York’s Lower East Side. Twenty-seven mostly Asian children – when I use the classic ‘clap, clap, clap-clap-clap’ signal, they fall silent immediately, eyes on me. Thorough plans from their teacher, including Social Studies – based on a Scholastic News magazine article about Selma and Civil Rights.

How do we introduce this to first generation immigrants (based on their accented English and preference for conversing in Chinese) who clearly have no context for that time? We read the article round-robin (a rarity these days), but the follow-up questions are met with blank stares. To enliven the short article, I’ve found some archival photos online to project on the Smartboard, and invite some discussion of how people might have felt then, seeing the shocking images on TV for the first time ever. Then I continue to a video from the recent 50 year anniversary celebration, specifically the speech made by John Lewis before he introduced President Obama. Immediately I regret this, for so many reasons.

The computer is set to the wrong screen resolution, stretching the images too wide. The sound quality is poor, and Rep. Lewis, with his strong Southern accent and also choked with emotion, induces snickers and imitations. My heart freezes. The mikes, positioned for the tall president, virtually obscure the much shorter Georgia Representative Lewis, so he appears to be bobbing in and out of sight. Suddenly, a Civil Rights icon and personal hero of mine is being subjected to derisive whispers and mirth. I find myself reminding them sharply that this man was willing to give his life for his beliefs throughout the Civil Rights struggle, and on that day, he almost did. The youngsters straighten their faces and attempt to pay attention, but there is no resonance for them. Someone else’s fight in some distant time, and definitely not about them. Epic Fail.

During lunch, I examine the bulletin boards around the room, which are based on their study of the Civil War era. Contemporary illustrations have been pinned up, surrounded by hand-written responses by the children. Around an engraving of enslaved people hoeing land and planting, an overseer on horseback holding a whip, and a white man lounging against a fence, watching, the children have noted: “The people want to get all the work done.” “He needs to make sure the work gets done.” (The overseer) And “He is watching to make sure the work will be finished in time.” (The white man) No-one remarks on the whip, the ethnicity of the characters, or the leisurely stance of the slave-owner.

I fall back on my own stereotypes of China under Chairman Mao, with the devotion of workers to collectivism, common goals of productivity, and self-effacing obedience. 60 plus years have passed since the Cultural Revolution, but how do Civil Rights images look to an Asian immigrant compared to a child born in the South Bronx, in Newark, NJ, or in Selma, Alabama? How does a teacher bring up the subject effectively in a 5th Grade classroom in Chinatown? And does it matter?

So it was with perfect synchronicity that I attended a meeting on May 12th called Digging Deeper: Teaching Rights and Social Justice in a Post-(Michael) Brown Era, offered by the Institute for Public Knowledge at NYU, in partnership with:

International Perspectives on Human Rights Ed, International Ed Program, Dept. of Humanities and Social Services, Steinhardt School.

NYU Partnership Schools Program

Metropolitan Center for Research on Equity and the Transformation of Schools, NYU.

The event was spearheaded by Carol Anne Spreen, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Steinhardt, NYU, and Chrissie Monaghan, Ph.D. Coordinator, NYC-RTE.

http://steinhardt.nyu.edu/faculty/Carol_Anne_Spreen Faculty biography.

http://curry.virginia.edu/articles/right-to-education, including links to other published works.

Her immediate boss, Jonathan Zimmerman, was also there to give an outline of his own contributions to the subject.

http://steinhardt.nyu.edu/faculty/Jonathan_Zimmerman Faculty Biography

Also on hand was David E. Kirkland, who spoke from both a professional and personal perspective about the systemic factors influencing people and communities of color in recent times.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EgOoLi1iE7k – for a video with Assistant Professor of English Education David Kirkland discussing how we can understand the complex literate lives of urban youth in and outside of the classroom and the experiences that develop their identity and engagement with the larger world.

http://steinhardt.nyu.edu/faculty/David_Kirkland Faculty biography.

Following these presentations, short introductions were given by representatives of organizations which provide various forms of support and expertise to schools and public forums. I was already familiar with several of these, such as

Teaching Tolerance, http://www.tolerance.org/classroom-resources

Which is the education arm of the

Southern Poverty Law Center, http://www.splcenter.org/what-we-do/teaching-tolerance Also

Howard Zinn’s education site https://zinnedproject.org/ -in conjunction with:-

Teaching for Change, http://www.teachingforchange.org/ and

Rethinking Schools, http://www.rethinkingschools.org/index.shtml

But there are so many dedicated organizations also offering social justice education programs!

Oxfam; http://www.oxfam.org.uk/education

Facing History, Facing Ourselves; https://www.facinghistory.org/for-educators/educator-resources#bottom

Equitas; https://equitas.org/en (look under educational resources)

Amnesty International: http://www.amnestyusa.org/resources/educators

Asia Society:  http://asiasociety.org/education

Human Rights Watch: http://www.hrw.org/about

Global Nomads Group:  http://gng.org/program-pathways

Speak Truth to Power:  http://rfkcenter.org/speak-truth-to-power and http://curriculum.rfkcenter.org/

Street Law Inc.  http://www.streetlaw.org/en/home

Brooklyn 826 (Valencia 826) http://826nyc.org/

Educational Video Center:  http://www.evc.org/tools

Voice of Witness:  http://voiceofwitness.org/education-about/

While each of these offer distinctive resources and focus, every educator who cares about increasing the depth of exposure and understanding of their students will find a wealth of support here. As with all resources, find the one(s) which meet your needs, match your voice and purpose, and stick with it.

To return briefly to my 5th graders – the educators I spoke to had two important messages.

  • it is best to start with personal stories and experiences before launching into the topic, so that you can create common ground between your students and the theme you plan to launch.
  • (this especially from Facing History, Facing Ourselvespresenter Daniel Braunfeld), create the plans around the age and experience of the students themselves. What works for one group may be entirely inaccessible for another of the same age/grade, so Facing History curriculum is always developed together with teachers on site, not scripted in a pre-digested format.

An article in Scholastic in 5th Grade will be too early and a mismatch for the children’s historical perspective, compared to mine after decades of living through it myself! I hope they will eventually get to discover for themselves, using one of these wonderful programs which are free and available to teachers and schools everywhere!

This post originally appeared on Beth Ellor’s examiner.com page, and was republished with permission.

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Beth Ellor has explored the New York City schools as a parent, as an early childhood teacher, and as a retiree currently providing professional development to inner city schools (as an independent contractor for a celebrated i3 provider). Also a substitute teacher in a wide range of schools, she is a close observer of the reality behind the rhetoric of school success, struggle and reform.

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Matthew Lynch published in Equity, Higher Education, Matthew Lynch

Diverse Conversations: The Difference Between Diversity and Equity

The nature of higher education is changing and the student population is changing at colleges and universities across the country. With luck, the promotion of equality in higher education will continue to engender equality in education – not only in terms of student access, actually, but in terms of employment. But how does diversity and equity work out in education – in the practice of teaching in higher education? Given the issues of equality and diversity within education, how, in today’s changing context, can we move on and teach these principles effectively?

To grapple with this issue, I spoke to Dr. Adriel A. Hilton, Director, College Student Personnel Program & Assistant Professor of College Student Personnel at Western Carolina University. Dr. Hilton served as past director for the Center for African American Research and Policy as well as Assistant Vice President for Inclusion Initiatives at Grand Valley State University. He also served as chief diversity officer and executive assistant to the President & Assistant Secretary to the Board of Trustees at Upper Iowa University.

Q: Concentrating on this issue of equality and diversity, first, let’s talk about how they are related. How do you see the relationship between equality and diversity in higher education?

A: I find it interesting that two words with contrasting meanings are used jointly as a way to improve higher education. Equality is synonymous with likeness, uniformity, fairness, and homology; while diversity, on the other hand, means unlikeness, variance, mixed, and heterogeneity. Yet, when the words are synced with higher education, they become mutually beneficial, having a powerful impact.

Much research has been done on the effects of diversity in higher education, concluding it has very positive effects on students. Exposure to diversity—whether it be cultural, race, gender, religion, sexual orientation or those with disabilities—provides students the opportunity to learn about and from each other, resulting in cognitive growth and citizenship.

The equality factor in higher education is to assure all students legally start off on a level playing field. Equity policies have evolved over the years—from the first affirmative action laws in the 60s to the One Florida Initiative of the late 90s to the Student Non-Discrimination Act of 2013. These laws were not intended to give preferential treatment, but are an effort to break down the barriers that discourage underrepresented populations from enrolling in college and suffering injustices in the workplace. These efforts are still widely debated, particularly quotas, but with colleges today focusing on promoting diversity, having some sort of equality policies in place on campus set expectations for students, faculty, and staff. They set standards of respect and call for all students to view each other as equals and for faculty and staff to treat each student, regardless of his or her differences, the same.

Q: Do you think higher education institutions are sufficiently aware of the difference and if not, why not?

A: I would like to think that anyone employed in higher education appreciates equality and diversity and acts accordingly, but I am not that naive—hence the need for equality regulations and policies. Personal experience has proved that people in higher education are human first, with learned prejudices that have been passed down through the generations and of which are hard to let go. It is only through knowledge of and exposure to people of different races, culture, religion, gender, sexual orientation, and those with disabilities, that insight is gained about another person’s lived experiences. Without this knowledge, any degree of empathy, respect, or joy about any person who is unlike us is impossible to understand. When no conscious effort is made to learn about diversity and equality, progress is impeded.

Q: Explain why you feel it is imperative that courses in diversity and equality are included in college curricula.

A: The obvious answer is knowledge about diversity equips our graduates with the tools needed to effectively cope in today’s diverse workplace and global society. We now live in an age where technology has allowed us to easily connect with all types of people from around the world. Sensitivity toward a person’s culture, race, gender, sexual orientation, religion, and disability is an absolute must.

Community service is another motivation for colleges to offer diversity and equality courses. Who better to pass on the importance of a college education to underrepresented teens than someone who has been through the process? When college students serve as role models through partnership programs with local public schools, it can be very fulfilling and even lead to a lifelong passion for community service.

However, the main reason diversity and equality should be taught at the college level is that it helps to develop empathetic, socially conscious individuals. I think former Florida Governor Jeb Bush is a good example of a college-educated, empathetic, and socially conscious, wealthy white male.

According to the NCSL (National Council of State Legislatures) website, when Governor Bush issued the One Florida Initiative in 1999, his intent was to reform college preparation in Florida public schools (P-12) for all students, regardless of race or ethnicity, and to do away with race-based college admissions. He stated in a press release, “With my One Florida Initiative, we can increase opportunity and diversity in the state universities and state contracting without using policies that discriminate or pit one racial group against another.”

According to the Foundation for Excellence in Education (Bush is founder and board chairman of FEE) website “…during his two terms, Bush championed major reform of education in Florida, raised academic standards, required accountability in public schools …created the most ambitious school choice program in the nation …progress is measurable …more high school seniors are earning a diploma …fewer students are dropping out …third through 10th grade students are outscoring 60-70 percent of their peers in all other states in both reading and math.”

Bush recognized a problem, developed a solution, and put it into action. In my opinion, without a strong conviction toward diversity and equity, Bush would not have seen the potential in all students, no matter their class, race, gender, religion, or disability, nor would he have been empathetic or cared enough to want to help the under-served population so they too had a chance to be successful.

Q: What advice would you give to fellow academics and administrators looking to teach diversity and equality and promote it?

A: Be objective. Teach from diverse perspectives – the first-generation Black male, the low-income Hispanic teen, women, disabled Veterans. Tell people’s stories, past and present. Bring in experts to speak. But most importantly, have your students be a part of the discussion by honestly sharing their own experiences, asking hard questions, and having healthy debates so that they become personally vested in the learning process. Finally, initiate community service programs that partner with local schools to get students involved. It is through service that they will be able to see first-hand what a positive impact they can have on the lives of others. Remember, as instructors, our job is to plant the seed. It is the student’s responsibility to take that seed (knowledge) and, hopefully, choose to nurture it and make it grow.

We would like to thank Dr. Hilton for taking time out of his busy schedule to meet with us.

 

 

 

 

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Matthew Lynch published in Equity, Policy & Reform

Education reform in New Orleans may serve white interests and not African Americans

**The Edvocate is pleased to publish guest posts as way to fuel important conversations surrounding P-20 education in America. The opinions contained within guest posts are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official opinion of The Edvocate or Dr. Matthew Lynch.**

By Derek Black

Adrienne Dixson (University of Illinois), Kristen Buras (Georgia St.), and Elizabeth K. Jeffers (Georgia St.) have released the paper, The Color of Reform: Race, Education Reform, and Charter Schools in Post-Katrina New Orleans, 21 (3) Qualitative Inquiry (2015).  They argue that

By most media accounts, education reform in post-Katrina New Orleans is a success. Test scores and graduation rates are up, and students once trapped in failing schools have their choice of charter schools throughout the city. But that’s only what education reform looks like from the perspective of New Orleans’ white minority — the policymakers, school administrators and venture philanthropists orchestrating and profiting from these changes. . .

From the perspectives of black students, parents and educators — who have had no voice in the decision-making, and who have lost beloved neighborhood schools and jobs — education reform in New Orleans has exacerbated economic and cultural inequities.

Get a summary of their research here and the full article here.

___

Derek Black is a Professor of Law at the University of South Carolina School of Law. His areas of expertise include education law and policy, constitutional law, civil rights, evidence, and torts. The focus of his current scholarship is the intersection of constitutional law and public education, particularly as it pertains to educational equality and fairness for disadvantaged students. His earlier work focused more heavily on intentional discrimination standards. His articles have been published in the California Law Review, Vanderbilt Law Review, Minnesota Law Review, Boston University Law Review, William & Mary Law Review, Boston College Law Review, and North Carolina Law Review, among various others. His work has also been cited in the U.S. Circuit Courts of Appeals and by several briefs before the U.S. Supreme Court.

 

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Matthew Lynch published in EdTech & Innovation, Equity

Survey: Internet helps education, hurts morality

The Pew Research Center has released results to a poll of relatively new internet users in developing countries that found the internet is viewed pretty favorably, particularly when it comes to education.

Sixty-four percent of the respondents felt that the internet had a positive impact on education and 53 percent said the same for personal relationships. When asked the same thing about the internet’s influence on politics and morality, however, only 36% and 29% had a favorable view, respectively. When you look at the way the internet is utilized in America and other developed nations, I’d say these observations align. There are good and bad aspects — but the potential for increased access to education is great.

I’ve said before that I feel technology can be a great equalizer in P-20 classrooms and this survey adds an international element to that stance. The internet allows access to information in ways that were not even dreamed of a few decades ago. Using internet technology to improve educational access on a worldwide scale is so important to elevating the global economy and knowledge base. Imagine the collaboration that will be possible worldwide between this generation of students because of internet access?

While the internet was considered somewhat of a luxury when it first emerged, I think it is vital that all corners of the world gain access in the coming decade. The internet should not be something elite countries have access to; it should be an educational right for all people. Through this mass adoption, knowledge collaborations will continue to grow and it will benefit all of us as world citizens.

Read all of our posts about EdTech and Innovation by clicking here. 

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Matthew Lynch published in Equity, Policy & Reform

The Civil Rights Act of 1964: Everything You Need to Know

In the month of June, 1963, President John F. Kennedy asked Congress for an all-inclusive civil rights bill. His move was induced by enormous resistance to desegregation and Medgar Evers’ murder. However, Kennedy was unable to get this bill passed in Congress. Following his assassination in November, President Johnson pressed hard with a stronger version of the bill. Thanks to the support of Clarence Mitchell and Roy Wilkins, the bill was finally passed on July 2, 1964, after the Senate witnessed one of the longest debates in its history.

The Civil Rights Act forbids discrimination on the basis of color, race, religion, national origin, or sex. Provisions of this Act forbade discrimination based on race and sex in hiring, promoting, and firing. This Act also prohibited discrimination in federally funded programs and public accommodations. It strengthened the desegregation of schools as well as the enforcement of voting rights too.

This Act is the country’s benchmark civil rights legislation, and it continues to resonate to date. Once the Act was passed, it put a stop to the application of “Jim Crow” laws, which had been upheld earlier by the Supreme Court in the Plessy v. Ferguson case (1896). In that case, the court decreed that racial segregation claimed to be “separate but equal” was legitimate. Congress ultimately expanded the Civil Rights Act to strengthen the enforcement of citizen’s fundamental civil rights.

Title IV of the Act prohibits discrimination in public schools based on color, race, religion, national origin, or sex. Public schools include secondary schools, elementary schools, and public universities and colleges. But it was a decade later when the legal framework for anti-discrimination laws concerning public school students was laid.

The Civil Rights Act (1964) also made school desegregation a much easier process. This forced schools to stop segregation because the consequence of not doing so would be to lose funding. This significantly reduced the number of segregated schools in the U.S. and established federal criteria that were used to evaluate schools to detect any form of segregation. Schools that were discovered to be in noncompliance were forced to participate in desegregation plans.

Although the Act was quite effective in reducing segregation, it did not change how the staff and students in formerly white-only schools felt about having African-American students in their schools. This has continued in many ways to this day, and though things are noticeably better, the effects of racism and segregation still linger.

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Matthew Lynch published in Equity

How Education Leaders Can Respond to Anti-Black Rhetoric

Education is a key weapon against racial discrimination and social inequality, but it is not always enough to combat anti-Black rhetoric. In recent years, anti-Black rhetoric has increased, and it is often used by individuals in positions of power to undermine the progress of Black people and communities. Education leaders must take action to respond to anti-Black rhetoric and create a more equitable and inclusive environment in schools.

Here are some ways education leaders can respond to anti-Black rhetoric:

1. Speak Out Against Anti-Black Rhetoric

Education leaders must recognize that silence is complicit in perpetuating anti-Black rhetoric and discrimination. Leaders must speak out against anti-Black rhetoric and actively engage in conversations with students, teachers, parents, and the community to promote anti-racism. Leaders should use their platforms to raise awareness about the impact of anti-Black rhetoric and to educate individuals on how it contributes to inequality.

2. Promote Diversity and Inclusion

Education leaders must ensure that their schools are inclusive and reflect the diversity of the community. Leaders should promote diversity by recruiting and hiring teachers and staff from diverse backgrounds, offering multicultural curriculum, and encouraging participation in multicultural events and activities. Leaders must also ensure that students feel safe and welcomed in classrooms and on campus.

3. Cultivate an Anti-Racist Environment

Education leaders must create a culture of anti-racism in their schools, where individuals stand up against racism and discrimination. Leaders should provide training and professional development opportunities for staff, teachers, and students on anti-racism. Leaders must also ensure that the curriculum is inclusive of Black history and culture and that textbooks and reading materials do not perpetuate stereotypes.

4. Encourage Empathy and Understanding

Education leaders must encourage empathy and understanding among students and staff. Leaders should teach students about the experiences of Black people in America and their contributions to society. Leaders must also create opportunities for constructive dialogue about race and racism and teach students how to seek out and listen to diverse perspectives.

In conclusion, education leaders must take action to respond to anti-Black rhetoric. Leaders should speak out against rhetoric, promote diversity, cultivate an anti-racist environment, and encourage empathy and understanding. By taking these actions, education leaders can create safer, more inclusive, and equitable schools for all students.  

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Matthew Lynch published in Equity

Why I Champion Gender Equity

Here are some reasons why I champion gender equity and why it matters.

1. To ensure equal opportunities – On the global stage, women still face discrimination that restricts their access to education, healthcare, employment, and fair wages. In many countries, traditional gender roles perpetuate the notion that women should stay at home, bear children, and remain subordinate to men. These attitudes and beliefs are not only unjust but hold back societies from achieving their full potential. By advocating for gender equity, we can ensure that everyone has an equal opportunity to succeed regardless of gender.

2. To address systemic sexism and biases – Gender equity is not just about establishing equal rights; it is also about dismantling existing biases, cultural practices, and social attitudes that hold women back. For instance, the bias against hiring women in technical or leadership positions, assumes that they lack the necessary skills or capabilities. Despite studies showing that gender-diverse teams fare better on several key performance indicators, there is still a prevalent belief that women are less competent or serious than men. Gender equity aims to correct these injustices that are often steeped in cultural traditions and norms.

3. To inspire younger generations – Promoting gender equity is an excellent way to inspire and empower the next generation of young women to dream big, challenge the status quo, and break the glass ceiling. Young girls growing up in societies where women do not have equal opportunities to men may not even be aware of their potential. Gender equity helps to re-educate them and show them that they can aspire to any career or life ambition that they choose.

4. To create a fair and more equitable society – Ultimately, promoting gender equity is about building a fair and just society. When women have equal opportunities and their rights are respected, they can contribute fully to economic, social, and political systems. A gender-equitable society is more likely to be peaceful, prosperous, and respectful of human rights.

In conclusion, the fight for gender equity is one that will not end anytime soon. We need to continuously educate ourselves, listen to women’s voices, work against unfair systems and practices, and speak up for gender equity. As gender equity champion Serena Williams said, “we must continue to dream big, encourage each other, and work together towards creating a more equal world.”     

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Matthew Lynch published in Equity

What Is Social Justice Education?

Social justice education is an educational approach that focuses on the promotion of equitable opportunities and outcomes for all members of society, especially those who have been historically marginalized. This educational model aims to inspire positive social change by addressing issues such as poverty, racism, sexism, and discrimination. It emphasizes the value of diverse perspectives, critical thinking, and collective action in order to address these complex issues and promote social justice.

The concept of social justice education has its roots in the civil rights movement, feminist movement, and other social movements of the 1960s and 1970s. These movements highlighted the pervasive inequalities that existed in society and demanded that the educational system address them. Educators began to recognize the need for a more inclusive and equitable model of education that would help to create a more socially just society. As a result, social justice education emerged as a powerful tool to promote equality and social justice through education.

Social justice education emphasizes the importance of subjecting students to different experiences, perspectives, and values. It facilitates their understanding of cultural, economic, political, social, and environmental diversity. This educational model draws from a variety of disciplines, including history, sociology, political science, and the arts, to equip students with the critical thinking skills and knowledge they need to recognize and understand injustices, as well as the tools to work to remedy them.

One of the key components of social justice education is the emphasis on experiential learning. This type of learning allows students to engage in real-world experiences that foster their understanding of social justice issues. For example, students might volunteer in a community organization, participate in a protest, or organize a social justice event. By engaging in these experiences, students develop a deeper understanding of the complexities of social justice and the role they can play in promoting it.

Another important aspect of social justice education is the creation of a safe and inclusive space for dialogue and debate. This space allows students to express their ideas freely and to engage in respectful conversations about social justice topics. It provides opportunities for students to challenge their own assumptions and biases and to learn from one another.

Social justice education aims to promote equity and social justice and is grounded in recognition of historical and systemic oppressions that affect the most marginalized in our society. Through addressing these difficult but necessary issues, this educational approach aims to empower students to advocate for themselves and for others, to work towards representational democracy and build a better world for all.

In conclusion, social justice education is an educational model that aims to promote equity and social justice by addressing systemic inequalities that exist in our society. It builds critical thinking and renders students capable of advocacy for fairness and the representation of all without bias. This educational philosophy enables students to create meaningful changes in their communities, effect positive change in society and address the root causes of social injustice. It assuages social disparities and prejudices and offers a comprehensive approach to teaching about history and our collective future.   

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Matthew Lynch published in Equity, Policy & Reform

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka: Everything You Need to Know

This is the ruling by the Supreme Court concerning the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka in the year 1954. This ruling decision transformed education in America forever. This ruling dismantled segregation of African American and European American children in public schools and declared it unconstitutional.    

The court’s ruling was based on its decision that any form of separation was unequal and in direct opposition to the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. States were instructed to assimilate all ethnic backgrounds into public schools and removed laws that enforced segregation in other facilities.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka discarded the “separate but equal” policy as advanced by the Supreme Court in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). According to this ruling, laws mandating separate public facilities for African Americans and whites don’t defy the equal protection clause if the amenities are just about equal. But the 1954 decision made the law inapplicable to public education. Although the ruling strictly applied just to public schools, it meant that segregation wasn’t permissible in other public facilities. Regarded as one of the most significant rulings in the court’s history, the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka case helped motivate the American civil rights movement of the late 1950s and ‘60s. 

The consequence of Brown v. Board of Education cannot be exaggerated. The case was sponsored by the NAACP, with heavy influence from Du Bois. The case was brought up because of the complaint of an African American father whose daughter was forced to travel a mile and a half every day to get to school when there was an all-white school available a couple of blocks away from her home.

There were four other cases presented along with the Brown hearing. The counsel of the plaintiff was none other than Thurgood Marshall, a man who would eventually become a Supreme Court justice. The decision to outlaw segregation shocked the entire country, and it was largely due to the influence of Chief Justice Earl Warren.

Since the Supreme Court expected opposition to its ruling, particularly in the southern states, it didn’t give directions for the immediate implementation. Instead, it asked all the attorney generals of those states that had laws allowing segregation in their public schools to submit plans for ways to proceed with desegregation. It was on May 31, 1955, when the Justices finally handed down a plan for desegregation.

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Matthew Lynch published in Equity

The Little Rock Nine: Everything You Need to Know

This was the first group of black students allowed to gain admission into the Central High in Little Rock, Arkansas, after the Brown ruling. These students enrolled in the school despite the harsh criticism and many threats from the local white community. They were protected by the 101st Airborne Division, which had been assigned to them by President Eisenhower. This triggered a series of chaotic events, the news of which captured the attention of the country.

The Little Rock Nine became the center of the struggle to desegregate public schools in the U.S., particularly in the South. These students were recruited by Daisy Bates, president of the Arkansas branch of the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People). Martin Luther King, who was then the president of the Montgomery Improvement Association, wrote to President Eisenhower requesting a speedy resolution to permit these students to attend school.

The initial years that the students spent at Central High were quite tumultuous. This was because the educational standards at white-only schools were much more demanding than what they were accustomed to, and they also faced constant bullying and abuse from their peers and teachers. On the first day of school (September 4, 1957), a white mob assembled in front of the school. In addition, the Arkansas National Guard was deployed by Governor Orval Faubus to prevent the black students from entering the school. To counter Faubus’ action, a team of NAACP lawyers won a federal district court injunction, which prevented the governor from blocking the students’ entry. On September 23, 1957, the students entered the school using a side entrance with the help of police escorts. However, fearing rising mob violence, they were sent home soon afterward. The Little Rock incident was becoming an international embarrassment, which Eisenhower realized. As a result, he reluctantly ordered troops from the 101st Airborne Division to protect the students. The Little Rock Nine was shielded by federal troops as well as the Arkansas National Guard for the rest of the school year.

Despite all these incidents, the courage of these students did not break. They continued to bear their oppression and faced their education with all diligence and perseverance. Ernest Green, one of the students, became the first African-American to graduate from Central High. He later worked as the Assistant Secretary of Housing and Urban Affairs under Jimmy Carter. In 1999, he was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor. 

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