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There are many external influences that impact public education. In this series the top four will be reviewed including the influence of professional education organizations, the involvement of parents, the businesses, and the federal government and court systems. For this part professional education organizations will be discussed to reveal their direct impact on public education.

There are two major professional education organizations to which teachers can belong: the National Education Association (NEA) and the American Federation of Teachers (AFT). These are discussed in greater detail in subsequent chapters. Teachers can belong to these national organizations by becoming members of local affiliate associations. The prominence of teachers’ professional organizations, and teachers’ voices in educational concerns and policies, has increased in recent years. The NEA and AFT affect policy at the national level and are influential due to their large membership numbers and their ability to convince members to vote for or against a particular political tenant. Locally, teachers’ organizations have been particularly effective at influencing policy and decision making, largely due to approaches such as threatening to strike if their demands aren’t met or if their concerns remain unheard.

Many teacher associations have come to fulfill the role of official bargaining agents for their members. Several of these associations have insisted that certain issues, such as professional salaries, curriculum creation, class sizes, and professional development, become part of the collective bargaining process. In some instances, teachers’ attempts to negotiate working conditions have not been met favorably by either superintendents or local school boards. This situation has been ameliorated somewhat by the provision of site-based management and decision making. This concept dictates that because most changes must occur at the school level, most decisions should be made at that level as well. So, budgetary and administrative decisions are made at the school level, with the administrative team seeking input from their teaching staff. The site-based decision-making model has increased the power of teachers to effect change within their direct work environment.

You’ll likely belong to a local affiliate of either the NEA or AFT. It’s imperative that you use appropriate channels to voice your concerns as an educator. Attending local meetings to be aware of current issues and trends is an excellent way to be knowledgeable and to make informed decisions pertaining to your career. You could consider running for office in one of the local chapters of your teachers’ association. You may also wish to join a school-based committee to take part in site-based management, to determine how funds will be spent, or to have a say in how educational policy will be interpreted in your school.

School officials, the local superintendent, and the school principal are not the only influences on your career as a teacher. Many other interested parties can impact what you do in your classes. Therefore being aware of the potential professional education organizations that are available or affiliated with your public school system can aid in your involvement as an Educator or community leader. Professional education organizations are only one type of influence, hence continue to read about the four influences on public education.

On the local level, educational governance is organized into four levels including the local school board, the local superintendent, the local school district, and the principle. This article highlights the details of the school principle and the essential role they have within the educational system.

The principal is the ultimate authority at the school level and is responsible for governance of all aspects of the day-to-day operation of the facility. Principals report directly to the local superintendent or one of the deputy superintendents. High schools and middle schools may have an administrative team composed of a principal and several vice or assistant principals. While some elementary principals may have an assistant principal (depending on the size of the school), they frequently work solo and may be in charge of more than one school building. The job of the high school principal is generally considered the most demanding of the three and, consequently, high school principals are often paid more than their elementary and middle school counterparts.

Principals are expected to be instructional leaders in addition to carrying out other administrative duties. Like the superintendent, the principal is expected to be an educational generalist. Principals set educational standards and goals, establish school policies and procedures, supervise teachers and other personnel, monitor student progress, ensure appropriate record keeping, and act as a liaison with parents and other members of the community.

In the process of setting school-level policies, principals sometimes call for input from faculty/ personnel, and sometimes do not. Because they are ultimately responsible for ensuring that policies are observed, they must clearly communicate policy parameters to their staff and defend or explain policies to the public. Principals must thoroughly understand their school’s individual mission and ensure that policies support it.

One of the largest duties that a principal undertakes is the supervision and evaluation of professional and paraprofessional staff. Principals are also key players in the search, recruitment, and interviewing process for new staff members. They assign teaching duties, establish schedules, and when necessary, appoint staff to various committees. Principals are responsible for informing their staff of recent developments at the school level and other important information, and this is mostly accomplished through scheduled staff/faculty meetings. These meetings also allow principals opportunities to request input into the decision-making process from school personnel. Principals are instructional leaders who often observe teachers and offer feedback and advice for improvement. They expect that teachers will keep them apprised of any out-of-the-ordinary occurrences in their classes that need the principal’s attention or input.

Principals are the final authority on administering student discipline within the school. They also have the last word on student assessment and grading. The principal has the right, in most schools, to overrule a grade assigned by a classroom teacher. Principals, sometimes in concert with other professional staff, decide if students will be retained in their current grade level or will be passed into the next.

Principals create the schedule for the entire school year, assigning teachers to classes and establishing all classes within a set time frame. They manage school budgets, set priorities, and determine how funds will be allocated. They are also the most readily identifiable public personality of the school and are therefore the primary representative of the school, its policies, and its achievements to parents and the community at large. In 1991 both the National Association of Elementary School Principals (NAESP) and the National
Association of Secondary School Principals (NASSP) created a list of proficiencies that exemplify effective principals. High-performing principals provide extensive leadership and decision making, encouraging others to attain excellence while promoting a sense of community among all school members.

They communicate effectively and model appropriate behavior, as they involve all concerned stakeholders (parents, community members, students, educational personnel) in decision making and attempts to reach consensus. High-performing principals promote and enhance learning by supporting the development of an excellent curriculum and instructional delivery process. They supervise their staff’s professional development and encourage them to learn and to grow as educators. Effective principals also ensure that assessment measures are in place, and that the assessments accurately measure the progress of both students and staff. They organize and manage all aspects of the school’s day-to-day workings, which include staffing, making schedules, managing time, implementing policies, and maintaining the building. Principals also prepare and manage the school-based budget. Finally, effective principals are politically astute and can garner the support of key community players and deal with political issues that may arise.

Elementary and secondary schools will be negatively affected by a predicted shortage of principals in the years to come. The expected shortfall will be due in part to the number of expected retirements of current principals. A greater impact, however, can be found in the attitudes of current teachers toward the position of principal. Most teachers indicate they would not seek an administrative position, because they feel principals are not paid well enough, considering the responsibility they carry. Many teachers assert that the position demands far too much time and commitment. It is too difficult, they say, to attempt to address all the needs of the school while meeting the demands of all concerned stakeholders (e.g., parents, the local school board, businesses, and state and federal educational authorities).

As an aspiring teacher, your relationship with your principal will be important, because he or she will have a direct impact on your job. You may or may not have an opportunity to express your wishes regarding what you teach. Your principal will also visit your classroom frequently and will likely be in charge of your performance evaluation. And your principal will be instrumental in helping you to maintain discipline in your classes and will often serve as a bridge between you, and parents, and the community. A new teacher’s success often depends largely on the relationship he or she has with the principal.

Remember the school principle serves in a vital role and works closely with all internal and external stakeholders. Therefore their role within educational governance is necessary for the operation of their school. Continue to read articles in this segment to learn about the other levels of educational governance at the local level.
What You Need to Know as an Educator: How to Deal with a Difficult Principle

Working with people can be very difficult especially if the person is your boss and you may not agree with their leadership style or discussions. As a teacher you may find it very difficult to work with your principle. Therefore this article provides tips for surviving the work place as you continue to invest in the lives of students.

Being a teacher was handsdown one of the most difficult things that I have ever done in my life. It was also, however, the most rewarding. I had excellent relationships with my colleagues and my building principals, who served as a support system during times of uncertainty and difficulty. I hope that you will have a similar experience, but I also want you to be prepared if you do not.

Your school principal serves as an immediate supervisor and has direct authority over the day-to-day management of the school. A principal can be an invaluable ally in your pursuit to educate students or can be a nuisance and make your life a living hell. Here are some strategies that you can use to deal with a difficult principal.

Take steps to open the lines of communication, and build a healthy reciprocal relationship with your principal. There is nothing wrong with appeasing your principal, and even “kissing up.” Your objective is to coexist with him or her and be the best teacher that you can be. Document every interaction between you and your building principal. If there is a problem down the line, you will have a detailed record of your interactions. Also, if your colleagues witnessed important interactions between you and your principal, be sure to record their names and other pertinent information.

If you feel as though your principal is bullying or persecuting you, try to stay calm and remain professional. Give the principal the benefit of the doubt at first, but if he or she crosses the line, it may be time to seek help. This is especially true if you feel that you have done all that you can to solve the problem.

If you do decide to seek outside help or advice, your union representative will be your first line of defense. The representative will inform you of your rights and help you devise a plan for dealing with the situation. If your principal is exhibiting bullying behaviors toward you, odds are that he or she has also bullied others. There is a possibility that your union representative has fielded complaints about this principal in the past.

If the problem does not subside with time, I would either transfer to another school in the district or simply leave. If you are not satisfied with this course of action, perhaps you should report the principal’s actions to someone further up the chain of command, but make sure you have done your part by having a heart-to-heart with your principal. Remember, it’s not your fault, and everyone, even principals, must face the consequences of their actions.

We would like to think that principals are all altruistic people who treat everyone fairly and have our best interests at heart, but in the end they are human just like us. I have seen strong relationships between teachers and principals devolve into toxic ones within the blink of an eye. The funny thing is that it was usually over some petty matter or a product of miscommunication.

There may come a time when you have to deal with a difficult principal, and I just want you to be prepared. If you implement these strategies, you should have no problem standing up for yourself. Remember why you love to teach and use these tips to deal with your principle.

On the local level, educational governance is organized into four levels including the local school board, the local superintendent, the local school district, and the principle. This article highlights the details of the local school district office.

School governance at the local level emanates from the school district office. The number of district level administrators varies, depending on the size of the district. The superintendent is located at the local school district office. Additional district-level administrators are usually organized according to the function they fulfill. School district offices will typically have administrators and staff who are responsible for finance, student record keeping, hiring personnel, curriculum, teaching and instruction, assessment and evaluation, the provision of technology and school supplies/materials, and logistics (building maintenance and transportation). Their job titles reflect the functions they perform, to include deputy or assistant superintendent, coordinators, and directors.

Many of the functions of the local district office impact the work of teachers. District administrators who are focused on teacher learning, assessment, and evaluation directly influence the work of teachers with their students. Many local districts have curriculum specialists who oversee all matters related to curriculum and instruction for the district. They may be responsible for providing professional development opportunities by organizing workshops and ongoing training sessions relevant to the curricular needs of teachers. They are often in charge of organizing various curriculum based committees, as well as supervising the development of guides for local implementation of curriculum. These guides are typically organized by subject and may include appropriate outcomes and guidelines, possible topic areas to be covered, and sample assessment practices.

Local district staff is required to develop appropriate assessment measures to determine if students are meeting state standards by testing progress at several designated grade levels. They must also collect statistics (often based on student grades/achievement) to determine the effectiveness of instruction in the district. These data are required by different agencies at the federal, state, or local level.

Local school boards have been fixtures in the U.S. educational system for over a century, and they are responsible for representing the will of the people regarding school district governance. As a teacher, it’s a good idea for you to learn more about the school board’s duties and how it affects your day-to-day job. Even before you can be hired, the principal must present your credentials and a recommendation for hire at a local school board meeting. If the board decides that hiring you is not in the best interests of the district, they will reject the principal’s recommendation.

School boards also affect you as a teacher by implementing educational reforms such as student testing and graduation requirements. You should be aware that many school boards micromanage school system operations, and at times, they can make decisions that are merely political and have nothing to do with the best interests of the district’s students. This happens more often than one would think and can lead to a toxic work environment.

The local school board shapes curriculum and creates policies and procedures but also must align them with state and federal mandates. It will be helpful for you to know who sits on your school board and to make sure they know who you are.

The local school district office is the essential support of the superintendent and directly impacts teachers. Therefore their role within educational governance is necessary for the improvement of school systems. Continue to read articles in this segment to learn about the other levels of educational governance at the local level.

On the local level, educational governance is organized into four levels including the local school board, the local superintendent, the local school district, and the principle. This article highlights the details of the local superintendent.

The local superintendent is the most powerful person at the local level, because he or she is the de facto head of all schools in the district, fulfilling both executive and administrative functions. Superintendents are usually selected by school boards, although some districts elect their superintendent. There is a significant gender gap at this level, and around three quarters of superintendents are male.

The duties of a superintendent are varied. Often the only professional educator present at a board meeting, the superintendent advises board members on educational issues and policy. And as an instructional leader, the superintendent supports and directs principals, supervises and oversees staff performance evaluations, and measures the effectiveness of programs and curricula in the schools. Superintendents have a say in how the schools are administered on a daily basis, setting policy in education and related areas such as dress codes, the courses that are taught, and tolerance/ behavior policies. Other tasks include establishing the yearly budget for the district, recruiting and hiring educational personnel, and ensuring that all school buildings are kept in repair. The superintendent also leads an administrative team that usually comprises one or more deputy/assistant superintendents, who assist the superintendent with the day-to-day operations of the district and its schools.

One of the most important duties of a superintendent is to increase public awareness concerning the vision and the direction of the local school board. It has been suggested that a superintendent’s most taxing and important role is that of a political negotiator, because the superintendent must navigate the various demands of a citizenry bent on influencing school policies. The most effective superintendent is, of necessity, a generalist who possesses an eclectic range of skills and abilities and a comprehensive knowledge of educational issues.

In 1993, the American Association of School Administrators (AASA) developed professional standards to guide the behavior of superintendents, as well as to serve as a means for measuring their effectiveness. According to the AASA, superintendents are mandated to:

• Provide executive leadership and establish an appropriate climate in schools under their charge.
• Work collaboratively with the local school board to set educational policy.
• Attend to regulations and standards.
• Effectively communicate the district’s unique vision to the public at large.
• Maintain a harmonious relationship with the community.

Superintendents must use data to inform their decision-making process as they strive to find solutions to issues or problems in their schools. They are considered experts in guiding the development of curriculum and in designing means to assess academic achievement. They also provide excellence in instructional management, using current pedagogical research to ensure that all students in their schools are exposed to the very best educational practices. Superintendents are required to be experts in developing means by which to evaluate staff, and they make sure that professional development is available for educational personnel so that they may continue to improve professionally. Finally, superintendents are expected to understand the underlying values of the school district and to model appropriate leadership in this respect. The standards for performance for superintendents seem to indicate that the role of the superintendent is one of guidance, facilitation, communication, and coordination.

The typical tenure of a superintendent is 5.5 years, leading some analysts to suggest that turnover is common due to the inherent conflicts that exist between superintendent and school boards.
This conflict may find its genesis in the fact that superintendents must provide leadership to school boards while at the same time being directly responsible to them. Keep in mind that the school boards hire superintendents in the first place. Conflicts inevitably arise over funding issues, political stances, and change as it occurs in education. To successfully manage these conflicts and achieve their educational vision, superintendents often find themselves garnering support from various coalitions.

By being the second level of educational governance on the local level, the superintendent is vital to the operation and behind the scenes work within the education system. Therefore it is important to know your local superintendent and understand their leadership and mission. Continue to read articles in this segment to learn about the other levels of educational governance at the local level.

On the local level, educational governance is organized into four levels including the local school board, the superintendent, the local school district, and the principle. This article highlights the details of the local school board.

The local school board is charged with interpreting state regulations and setting similar policies for its district while creating strategic plans for the advancement of education in its district. The local school board represents the state in educational matters as well as advocates for the concerns and rights of the local citizenry. Although the local school board is bound to implement state educational policies, it also has the right to challenge policy through accepted channels if it feels the state designated regulations are not in the best interests of students and schools in their district.

Local school boards are also directly responsible for hiring school personnel, implementing programs, and evaluating the overall effectiveness of staff performance. They approve final budgets as well as the purchase of capital items. Furthermore, they are charged with the task of informing the public about issues and events that impact schools. Some local school boards even have the authority to increase their revenues by raising the taxes of the residents in their district.

As laid out by state law, members of the local school board are typically elected, although they can also be appointed by the mayor, or a combination of both. Approximately 96% of all local school boards are elected by the communities they serve. On average, local school board members complete a 4-year term and are officially considered to be officers of the state. Additionally, members are often monetarily compensated for their services. Any interested adult can serve on a local school board: specific educational background or expertise is not a requirement. In 2004, the National School Boards Association published an account of the profile of a typical board member. According to the report, board members tend to be male, white, professional, middle-aged, and affluent. As a result, the boards often do not reflect the demographics of the majority of the people whose interests they represent. Other ethnicities and cultures, as well as women, are underrepresented on local school boards. This fact may explain the criticism that local school boards are primarily composed of an elite group that is removed from the population they serve.

The estimated 15,000 local school boards across the country are responsible for determining how state policy will be interpreted in their area and setting policy for their own schools. To this end they appoint or hire an educational professional, typically designated as the superintendent, who is charged with administering the day-to-day workings of schools in the district. The relationship between the superintendent and the local school board is integral to the success of all educational programs and services undertaken by the district. Surprisingly, only half of the nation’s local school boards have written codes defining and establishing the boundaries of this crucial relationship. The resulting lack of clarity has caused some confusion about the role of the superintendent, his or her status within the local school board structure, the compass of his or her authority, and the scope of his or her responsibilities.

Some boards become too involved with the day-to-day operations of schools by micromanaging schools and administrators under their jurisdiction. These actions tend to interfere with productive professional relationships between the board and school personnel and hamper the educational progress of the schools and pupils under the board’s charge. Recently, many local school boards have come under fire, accused of interfering in educational matters best left to the discretion of the professional educators they have themselves hired. Some boards have also been criticized for being too politically involved by striving to cater to the whims and desires of a very small percentage of the electorate in their areas.

Board members typically serve extremely short terms, most averaging less than 4 years. Researchers have posited that this rapid turnover rate is one of the main reasons that relationships between board members and the superintendent are so prone to deterioration. New board members may not fully understand the background of various initiatives undertaken before their term and as a result may not fully support those endeavors. This lack of support may be the reason that many school-based initiatives lose their momentum and ultimately fail. And the shrinking number of local school boards since the 1930s—from 200,000 to the current 15,000—has meant that local school boards are charged with governing more teachers and schools and have less time to give attention to the concerns and grievances of each. As a result, some parents and special interest groups have complained that their perspectives and concerns are not heard at the local level.

Reports issued by the Committee for Economic Development, the Institute for Educational
Leadership (IEL), and the Twentieth Century Fund have all suggested that the power structure of local school boards should be changed and that their actions should be subject to state performance criteria to increase their accountability. Some larger cities, such as New York, Los Angeles, and Boston, have either done away with or dramatically reduced the power and influence of school boards. In these cities, local administration of education has been passed to the mayor, consolidating the control of education in one individual, who also designates the funds for schools under his or her jurisdiction. Some favor this arrangement because it may effectively reduce the incidence of assigning blame, or the dodging of responsibility that may take place within a board when no single individual is ultimately accountable for decisions.

Teachers are typically hired by principals, although the local school board, where one exists, has the final say as to whether or not a teacher is hired, because they must authorize the letter to offer work. It may seem that the politics of school boards have little to do with you as a classroom teacher, but the reality is that it can have a tremendous impact on both you and your students. The proceedings of the local school board are public records. As a novice teacher, you should attend a few meetings or at least read the minutes.

Although the local school board is one level of educational governance at the local level, the school board is very essential to the operation and success of individual schools within the district. Continue to read articles in this segment to learn about the other levels of educational governance at the local level.

Leaders can be determine by in various ways whether it is pertaining to well-known leaders like the President, future leaders like the students in your classroom or historical leaders around the world. However, as an Educator there is a leadership structure within the educational system that you should be aware of as you continue investing in the lives of students. This article provides an overview of the levels of leadership in education including the role of the governor, legislator, state board of education, the chief state school officer, and the state department of education.

The Governor

The governor is undoubtedly the most influential person in the state, setting policy and reaching decisions on all areas under his or her jurisdiction, including education. Some governors take a very active role in determining and designing the course of educational policy for their state. Many have a team of advisors who provide guidance on all issues related to education. The advisory team is frequently composed of former educators but, in many states, leaders from the business community also serve on this team. Advisors act as a liaison between the governor and the legislature by providing assistance with policy creation and providing many public relations oriented tasks and events such as hosting press conferences, designing public announcements, and convening public meetings on the governor’s behalf.

The Legislator

Although the governor is the most influential person in the state, the legislature is a powerful body in establishing policies, passing laws, and appropriating funds for education. Educational policies set by legislatures have received more interest from the public in recent years, primarily due to the increased prominence (and surrounding controversy) of educational financing and student assessment.

All members of the legislative assembly are elected to their positions by the voters in their districts and are directly responsible to those voters when making policy decisions or enacting educational regulation. Legislators often represent a diversity of both opinions and expectations when dealing with educational matters. For example, a politician from a rural district may have different needs and priorities from one who represents an inner-city district. The state legislature will form an education committee, which oversees both educational policy and funding and creates or suggests revisions to policies. Just like the governor, these committees are advised by specially appointed aides, who collect and help to interpret information for the committee members.

The State Board of Education

The SBE is charged with implementing educational policy and providing both governance and supervision to all schools located within the state. Typically, the SBE performs the following functions:

• Establish the general goals, vision, and direction for education in the state.
• Determine the curriculum that will be taught in classrooms.
• Set the standards by which students’ achievement will be measured.
• Establish guidelines regarding the operation of all elementary and secondary schools, and determine how programs will be regulated within individual schools.
• Advise the governor/legislature about necessary changes to policy.
• Report to both the public and to the governor/legislature on the status of education in the state.

The SBE determines the appropriateness of educational policy, while the chief state school officer ensures that approved policies are implemented. Typically, the governor appoints members to the SBE, but in some states, the public elects members. Generally, SBEs or the equivalent bodies have between 9 and 15 members.

The Chief State School Officer

The chief state school officer is directly responsible to the SBE or equivalent body. The title of this position varies among different states and may be referred to as the state superintendent or commissioner of education, serving the same function in some states. Either the governor or the SBE appoints an individual for this position in some states, whereas other states elect this official by public vote.

The chief state school officer is frequently a member of the governor’s cabinet and can therefore exert his or her influence on policy and decision making directly with the governor. An elected chief state school officer may be less influenced by the governor’s opinions on and views about education in the state. As of 2008, 23 chief state school officers were appointed by the SBEs, 17 were appointed by the governor, two were appointed by the SBE and approved by the governor, while the remaining 11 were elected by popular vote.

The principal duties of the chief state school officer are related to educational policy setting and to ameliorating any education-related issues that may arise. The chief state school officer strives to improve education and sets task forces to delve into issues and to propose solutions. The officer also coordinates studies to determine the overall status of education within the state and then communicates these findings to the governor, the legislature, the SBE, and the general public. Although the chief state school officer has very little direct authority over educational personnel at the local level, his or her influence is evidenced through policy and regulatory changes.

State boards of education exert powerful influence over teachers and schools by creating education policy and providing leadership. Through adopting educational policies and setting standards for educational initiatives, the board provides the direction required to allow teachers to prepare today’s students for a victorious future. Each state board varies in size, and their members are drawn from districts throughout the state. The commissioner or superintendent of education serves as the chief executive officer for the state and usually supervises the board.

The actions of these individuals have direct implications for the day-to-day lives of teachers. The board has direct oversight over teacher licensure and adopts and sets licensure policies. They also decide what should be included in the curriculum and how students should be instructed. They also provide financial oversight over the states’ K–12 schools and set teacher salaries.
The State Department of Education

The state department of education is usually presided over by the chief state school officer and ensures that all legislation and regulation created by the state are observed throughout the state. The state department of education is also primarily tasked with the accreditation of teacher education programs and the certification of all educational personnel (e.g., teachers, principals, counselors.) The department also oversees the dispersal of educational funds, evaluates programs, suggests improvements to curriculum, and collects and analyzes data and issues reports. The state department of education often calls on teachers to offer their perspectives, experiences, and needs regarding educational concerns. You may be asked (or you may wish to volunteer) to participate in committees that advise the chief state school officer and the state department on instructional matters.

Knowing each of these levels of leadership will aid in understanding the impact of government on the educational system. The question remains how are these levels of leadership impacting your local school districts today?