Teaching Strategies, Tactics, and Methods

A hero’s journey is a hero story template that pops up in fiction, folklore, and mythology. In these stories, a hero goes on an adventure in which they face trials, challenges, and enemies. The hero returns home at the end of the adventure as a profoundly changed person with new strength and knowledge. In some stories, they might return with some magical object or reward.

It’s probably the most common type of hero story and can be found in many places. From Homer’s Odyssey to The Wizard of Oz and even many superhero films, many stories use the hero’s journey, also called the monomyth, as their template. In this teaching wiki, we’ll explain how these hero stories work, some of the main recurring character types, and how you can teach your class about hero’s journey stories.

How are hero’s journey stories structured?

There are a few debating ideas about how hero’s journey stories are structured. One thing they all agree on, though, is that this type of hero story is split into three distinct acts:

1: Departure: The main hero receives a ‘call to adventure in the first act, disrupting their everyday life. They might be reluctant at first and refuse to go on the adventure. In some hero’s journey stories, this first act is where the hero is born, grows up, and starts to understand their heroic purpose. At the end of this act, the hero leaves behind the world they know and ventures into a more uncertain, dangerous one.

2: Initiation: The second act is where things get interesting. In this section, the hero faces a series of trials and challenges. They might sometimes fail or be tempted to go down the wrong path (literally or metaphorically!), but they will eventually persevere and continue their adventure. At the end of the second act, the hero confronts the thing that’s been causing all the bother and receives their reward.

3: Return: Even though it might sound like the hero story is over, there’s still one essential act left to go. In act three, the hero leaves the new world they’ve ventured into. They might be reluctant to leave, or in some stories, they’re chased out by an angry guardian or god-like figure. When the hero returns home, they learn to use the new knowledge, power, or magic item they’ve gained.

What other characters can be found in the hero’s journey stories?

As well as the main hero, several character archetypes appear across many hero’s journey tales. These are some of the main ones:

• The Mentor: This character type plays a crucial role in the plot. The mentor often motivates the hero to go on the adventure in the first place. They might also train the hero or give them helpful advice.
• The Threshold Guardian: These characters can take several forms, but their role in the story is to challenge and impede the hero’s progress.
• The Ally: Though not every hero story has one, the Ally is an essential archetypal character. As the name suggests, their job is to help the hero through their adventure. In more modern stories, they’re used to make the story more exciting and to provide some good back-and-forth dialogue with the hero.
• The Shadow: The main antagonist of the story, The Shadow is a character with immense power who the hero must confront. While this might be a villain or monster, it can also be something more abstract, like the hero’s doubts and fears.

Why are hero stories so popular?

Although it might seem like they’ve been done to death, hero’s journey stories are still viral, and for a good reason. For one thing, a well-told hero story makes us feel good. There’s something universally satisfying about seeing an ordinary person transform into a hero and defeat an evil adversary.

Another reason the hero’s journey is such a tried-and-true format is that it allows us to sympathize with the hero. Seeing the hero face challenges and obstacles makes readers want to root for them even more.

Invasion games are team games where the purpose is to:

• invade the opponent’s territory or zone to score goals or points;
• protect your territory to prevent the opposition from scoring goals or points.

They are played within a certain period, with an equal number of players on each team. Invasion games are usually fast-paced, focusing on teamwork, keeping possession, attacking, and defending.

What are some examples of invasion games?

Invasion games are standard for children in school as they encourage teamwork. Some popular invasion games include:

Netball

Netball is a non-contact team sport that includes players attempting to score points by getting the ball into their opponent’s net. Each team consists of seven players, and the game is played on a rectangular court. The Netball World Cup took place every four years and was founded in 1963.

Hocessential

Hocessential is another invasion game that is a non-contact sport. Players must hit a hard ball into their opponent’s goal with a hocessential stick. Hocessential has one of the most significant courts of all the invasion games, making it a pretty tiring game!

Basketball

Basketball allows players to bounce the ball to reach their opponent’s net. There are only five players per team on the rectangular court at any time, and players are allowed to run into any area of the court.

Tag Rugby

It is an excellent sport to introduce children to rugby as it’s a non-contact version. In this invasion game, children wear belts with tags that a player on the opposite team can remove. Players can score points by placing the rugby ball over the try line.

Football

One of the most played invasion games in the world, football is played by two teams of 11 players. In football, it’s against the rules to use your hands to play the ball. There are also substantial football competitions, such as the World Cup and the UEFA European Championships.

What are the benefits of invasion games for children?

There are lots of positive reasons to play invasion games with children. They include developing new skills and physical benefits such as:

Sense of fair play: This applies to values such as honesty, self-control, bravery, and persistence. It’s also associated with how players should treat people equally, show self-control while communicating with others (e.g., staying calm under pressure), and have respect for referees and opponents.

Teamwork: Invasion games are played as teams with a shared purpose or goal – to score the most points and win the game. This type of learning experience is fantastic for children. These teamwork skills can be applied in many other areas of their education and adult life.

Friendship: Tying into teamwork skills, playing invasion games, and working together towards a common goal is a lovely way to encourage friendships in your class. These friendships will no doubt encourage children to participate in sports more often, leading them to enjoy physical activity and go on to live healthy and active lives.

Overall fitness: Invasion games require players to play a game for a set amount of time and are usually fast-paced. This sport will benefit children to get plenty of physical activity in their week and improve their fitness.

A variable is a way of storing information in a computer program. Think of a variable like a container; the name of the variable is the label on the container, which shows us what is inside.

Variables are used in coding and programming to help coders understand, remember, and use the information in the program. Once a variable has been assigned, the variable’s name can be used to bring up the data it stores later on in the program; this means that coders don’t have to remember strings of details because there is a shortcut instead.

Essential things to remember about variables in programming

• To assign a variable, most programs use the “equals” symbol (=). It shows the name of the variable (the label on the container) and the values you want to store (the contents of the container).
• Different programming languages have different rules about the variables in that program. Ensure to double-check the rules for the language that you are using.
• Choose the names of your variables carefully. They should be clear about what they are labeling and easily understood by other readers.
• Variables can change – for example, in a game, a variable might change when the user has added information. For example, perhaps the game asks the user what their name is, or it needs to store a high score to see if anyone can beat the high score.
• A variable is the opposite of a constant. A constant in a program is a data value that always stays the same.

Ocean

The ocean is a vast saltwater body covering most of the Earth (approximately 70%)!

How to describe the ocean

An ocean is a large expanse of saltwater covering over 70% of the Earth’s surface. Covering this much space, the ocean habitat is an essential home for much of the animal and plant life on earth.

Although there is one world ocean, a sprawling, continuous mass of water stretching across each continent, each tectonic region has its separate ocean.

The word ‘ocean’ derives from the Ancient Greek word ‘Okeanos.’

There are lots of ways you could describe the ocean. For example, you could talk about the depths of the sea, its colors of it, and how far it spreads across the land!

What are the five levels of the ocean?

There are five levels of the ocean:

Sunlight Zone – Up to 200m below the surface of the ocean. The water is warm here because of the sun.

Twilight Zone – Up to 1,000m below the surface of the ocean. The sun can’t reach here.

Midnight Zone – Up to 4,000m below the surface of the ocean. It’s pitch black here.

Abyss – Up to 6,000m below the surface of the ocean. Only invertebrates live here.

Trench – Up to 11,000m below the surface of the ocean. The temperature here is near freezing.

What are the five oceans of the world?

The five oceans that spread all over Earth’s continents are:

• Arctic Ocean: this ocean is located mainly in the North Polar region. It’s either entirely or partially covered by ice.
• Indian Ocean: bounded by three continents, the Indian Ocean encompasses around three seas within its boundaries.
• Atlantic Ocean: covering around 20% of Earth’s surface, the ocean lies between Europe and North America, as well as Africa and South America.
• The Pacific Ocean is the most enormous in size and depth worldwide. Its 63 million square miles of surface area runs from the USA to Australia; this makes it one-third of Earth’s total surface and more significant than all of the lands on our planet!
• The Southern Ocean: also known as the Antarctic Ocean, encircles Antarctica and is the second-smallest of the divisions of the World Ocean.

The Rapunzel story is a fairy tale recorded by the German academic The Brothers Grimm. It was published in 1812 in their anthology of  Children’s and Household Tales stories. However, the Grimm Brothers did not develop the story idea themselves. Several other versions of the story were in circulation by the time the Grimm Brothers were writing: versions recorded and adapted by many other writers.

The Rapunzel story

Once upon a time, there lived a man and his wife. The wife was pregnant with their first child and, like many women when they’re expecting a baby, was finding it very difficult to eat. As a result, she grew skinny and tired, and her husband worried about her.

They lived in a house next door to a witch. The witch had a beautiful garden and, in this garden, grew some delicious-looking lettuces. These lettuces looked so delicious that, despite her illness, the wife said she would like to eat one.

One night, desperate for his wife to get better, the man sneaked into the witch’s garden. He stole some lettuce and made it into a salad for his wife. His wife ate it all, then asked for more. The man was delighted that his wife felt able to eat at last. But he knew returning to the witch’s garden would be very dangerous. She was very, very powerful. Nevertheless, he loved his wife more than anything, so, determined to make her better, he went back to the witch’s garden at nightfall.

He climbed over the wall, found another lettuce to steal, and was just about to climb back when he heard a shout of anger.

‘Thief!’ shouted the witch. The man begged her for mercy. He explained that his wife was unwell and expecting a baby.

‘Your lettuces are so delicious,’ he said. ‘They’re the only thing she can eat.’

The witch considered this. ‘You can have the lettuce,’ she said. ‘But, in return, you must give me the baby.’

The man and his wife did not want to give their child away. So, in one version of the story, they try to flee and escape the witch, running far away to a place where they think she won’t be able to find them. But, sure enough, the witch appears on the day of the little girl’s birth. Ready, waiting to claim her prize.

In every version of the story, the witch takes the baby and raises her as her daughter. She named her ‘Rapunzel,’ after the plant the woman craved.

When Rapunzel was twelve, the witch locked her in a tower in the middle of a forest. As Rapunzel grew, so did her hair. It was so long that her beautiful tresses reached the floor when she leaned out the window. Whenever the witch visited, she’d call, ‘Rapunzel, Rapunzel, let down your hair! That I might climb thy golden stair.’’ Rapunzel then threw her hair down, and the witch climbed up.

Rapunzel and the witch lived like this for many years.

One day, a handsome prince happened to be in the forest. He heard a beautiful voice singing. He followed the voice and found the tower. As he watched and listened, she heard the witch call out to Rapunzel. He saw the hair fall and the witch climb up.

The prince waited for the witch to leave before calling out to Rapunzel himself. He climbed up, met Rapunzel, and began to visit her every day. They soon fell in love. The prince asks Rapunzel to marry him, and she says she will.

Together, they hatched a plan for her escape. The prince visited her every night, bringing a scrap of silk. They planned that Rapunzel would gradually weave the pieces of silk together into a ladder. However, before she could finish, Rapunzel gave the game away. One day, as she helped the witch over the window ledge, she said, ‘You know, you’re much heavier than the prince.’

The witch flew into a terrible rage. She cut off all of Rapunzel’s hair and threw her out of the tower. Rapunzel was left to wander around in the dangerous forest alone. Then, the witch gathered the hair and waited for the prince.

That night, the Prince turned up, as usual. When he called, ‘Rapunzel, Rapunzel, let down your hair!’ the witch lowered the braids she’d cut from Rapunzel’s head. When the prince reached the top, the witch let go of the hair and let him fall to the ground.

The prince landed in sharp thorns. They scratched his eyes and left him blind. He wandered for a long time in the forest alone. In some versions of the story, this goes on for years. But then, finally, he heard something.

It was Rapunzel’s song that had first led him to the tower. He followed her voice, and they found each other. Rapunzel cried with happiness. When her tears touched his eyes, he discovered he could see again.

Rapunzel and the prince returned to his kingdom and lived happily ever after.

In some variations of the story, Rapunzel is with two children, twins – a boy and a girl. The twins are the Prince’s children.

The different versions of the Rapunzel story

As is the case with many fairy tales and traditional stories, it isn’t easy to pinpoint categorically who was responsible for creating the Rapunzel original story. However, it is somewhat easier to decipher who was the first to record and publish the Rapunzel story, as the Brothers Grimm published their version in 1812.

It’s thought that the Grimm Brothers (Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm) based their version of the story on Frederick Schulz’s 1970 story Rapunzel. In this version of the story, the witch is a fairy and is portrayed as a generally more benevolent figure than in the version famous today. In addition, she wants to protect Rapunzel from the world by keeping her safe in the tower rather than deliberately incarcerating her against her will.

But even Schulz was working on another story. His version translated Charlotte-Rose de Caumont de la Force’s story Persinette, published in 1698. De la Force was a French novelist and poet. Her version was based on Petrosinella by Italian writer and story collector Giambattista Basile.

In Petrosinella, the witch is an ogress. The plant the mother craves so much is parsley, and the ogress chooses to call the little girl Parsley. Though much of the story is very similar to the story told by the Brothers Grimm, the ogre teaches Rapunzel ‘ magical arts’ while she keeps her a prisoner in the tower. As a result, Rapunzel can defeat the witch herself. As she escapes from the building (using a handy rope ladder), she throws three magic acorns (stolen from the ogress’s secret stash) behind her to delay the ogress as she chases them through the forest.

The first acorn turns into a dog. The ogress feeds the dog a loaf of bread and continues chasing them. The second acorn turns into a lion, but the ogress feeds the lion a nonessential from a nearby field. She then uses the nonessential skin as a coat, which turns out to be folly. The last acorn turns into a wolf. The wolf eats the nonessential skin and the ogress right up.

Ogress defeated, Rapunzel and the prince are free. So they leave and get married in the prince’s kingdom, where they live happily ever as you’d imagine.

As you can determine, it is tough for anyone to be sure when it comes to exactly who created the Rapunzel original story. Today, there appears to be one version of the Rapunzel story that most will be familiar with. What is clear is that each author and each version of the story contributed to the much-loved tale that is shared in modern times.

A castle is a vast building made to protect the people who live inside it. Castles were home to lords, princes, and kings who would rule the land from them. They would have soldiers to defend the castle from attackers and lots of servants, like cooks, cleaners, stable hands, and blacksmiths, to keep the castle running smoothly; this meant that castles could be very busy, loud, and crowded places to live.

Castles are iconic landmarks of European history. We can learn so much about the past by visiting these impressive monuments, such as how they were built, who lived in them, and what significant events happened within their walls.

There are more than 10,000 castles or ruins in Europe today. Keep reading to find out which countries have the most castles!

Germany

The country with the most castles in Germany! It’s thought that Germany has around 25,000 castles within its borders. Why does Germany have so many castles?

If a country has many castles, it is usually a sign that it has had a turbulent history with frequent fighting. Germany didn’t become the country it is today until 1871. Before that, it was a collection of small states. Many powerful lords and knights built their castles to protect themselves and their families from attackers; this also helped them to control their land.

Let’s have a closer look at some of Germany’s most famous castles:

Meersburg Castle

Meersburg Castle is thought to be the oldest inhabited castle in Germany. Its central tower was built around 630 AD. The castle is perched on a rocky outcrop in the area of Baden-Württemberg. Today parts of the castle are open to the public.

Wartburg Castle

Wartburg Castle was built around 1067 by a Thuringian count called Louis the Springer. The Thuringians were a Germanic tribe that founded a kingdom in central Germany during the 10th century.

The castle has had some famous visitors, including the monk Martin Luther who stayed there in 1521. He had been declared an outlaw and translated the Bible into German during his time at Wartburg. Today the castle is a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Neuschwanstein Castle

Neuschwanstein Castle is one of the most famous castles in Europe. Its name means ‘New Swan Stone Castle.’ It was built in Bavaria by Ludwig II in 1869.

As it was built after defensive castles were needed, this castle was the ultimate lavish fairytale dream. It’s thought to have inspired Disney’s Cinderella castle. Ludwig II wanted to create a fairytale castle where he could retreat from his kingly duties.

Neuschwanstein Castle is the most famous castle in Germany, with over a million visitors yearly.

Wales

While Germany may have the most amount of castles, Wales is the country with the most castles per square mile. Despite its small size, Wales had over 600 castles. Today over 400 castles still stand and are waiting to be explored by visitors.

Caerphilly Castle

It is the largest castle in Wales and the second largest in Britain. It was built in 1268 by Gilbert de Clare, who feared the rise of Welsh prince Llywelyn ap Gruffudd.

The castle has impressive moat defenses, thick walls, and tall towers, making it an imposing fortress. It even has its leaning tower, the White Tower, which leans more dramatically than Italy’s famous Tower of Pisa!

Harlech Castle

Harlech is a dramatic castle perched on a rocky crag near the mountainous area of Snowdonia in North Wales. It was built around 1282 by Edward I, who made a series of castles in Wales during his invasion of 1277 to 1283. Edward, I created these castles to conquer all of Wales. Having strongholds throughout Wales helped him to control the country more easily.

Edward, I ordered the building of around 17 castles in Wales, including castles at:

• Beaumaris
• Caernarfon
• Conwy

These castles became known as the Iron Ring, which encircled the Welsh resistance in North Wales until 1283, when the last Prince of Gwynedd, Dafydd ap Gruffydd, was captured and executed.

Cardiff Castle

Cardiff Castle has a monumental 2000 years worth of history locked within its walls. It’s nestled amongst the busy heart of the capital of Wales and was lived in by the Bute family until 1947, when it was given to the city of Cardiff.

A Norman castle was built on the site of a Roman fort. Remains of parts of the Roman wall and Norman castle can still be seen today. A Norman keep stands on a 12-meter high mound (also known as a motte).

Over the centuries, additions were made to Cardiff Castle, including medieval defenses and a more comfortable Victorian stately home. The inside of Cardiff Castle was redesigned by William Burgess, who created luxuriously decorated gothic-style rooms for the Marquis of Bute and his family. Today Cardiff Castle is a popular tourist attraction and frequently hosts events in its courtyard, including concerts and exhibitions.

What European Countries Have Castles?

Although Germany has the most important castles and Wales has the most castles per square mile, many European countries have some fantastic castles. Each one has its own unique, exciting history and secrets to tell. Here are some more interesting European castles to explore!

Alcazar of Segovia

It’s thought that Spain once had 10,000 castles thanks to its warring past. Today there are at least 2500 castles in the country.

One of the most impressive is the Alcazar of Segovia, originally a Moorish fort. When the Christian Spanish captured the defense in the 12th century. It has been a royal residence, prison, and military academy, and now it’s open to the public as a museum.

Bran Castle

Romania’s Bran Castle inspired the gothic castle in Bram Stoker’s novel ‘Dracula.’ It’s perched high on a hill in Transylvania and has seen many battles and armies since it was built in 1226.

Although the castle fell into disrepair during the 1800s, it was restored by Queen Marie of Romania during the 1920s. Now it’s a national monument and a popular tourist attraction.

Chateau de Chambord

It is one of France’s largest castles. A huge hunting park home surrounds the castle to many deer and wild boars. The size of the castle’s estate is the same as the French capital of Paris. Originally the castle was a hunting lodge for Francis I of France to enjoy some time away from court.

Chateau de Chambord has some breathtaking Renaissance architecture that is thought to have been inspired by Leonardo da Vinci’s sketches. Construction of the castle began in 1519 on the marshy ground of the Loire valley and was finally completed in 1685.

Eilean Donan

Scotland is home to hundreds of castles, and one of the most recognized is the picturesque Eilean Donan Castle. It sits on the island of Donan. In 617, a church was founded on the island, followed by the castle in the 12th century. Eilean Donan has seen more than its fair share of battles and was partially destroyed in 1719.

Renovation work on the castle began in 1919 and was finished in 1932. Today Eilean Donan is one of Scotland’s most iconic castles.

The PEEL structure is a way to write a paragraph in essays that gives young learners the best chance at creating a compelling and informative piece of writing. PEEL writing is used across schools to ensure reports are structured clearly, and it’s an essential skill to develop; this is essential for exams and encourages an excellent discourse structure that students can take into their adult life.

So what is PEEL all about?

PEEL writing follows four simple steps; Point, Evidence, Explain, and Link. The PEEL structure is used to make opinions and findings clear. Essays are persuasive writing; your goal is to convince the reader of your scholarly opinion. To create something compelling, it’s been recognized that the four steps of this writing style are an excellent way to bring readers around to agree with you.

Point

It is the most crucial part of the PEEL writing system. Your point needs to be set out right away. The opening sentence is used as the topic sentence and is your way to introduce to the reader the topic you’re going to be speaking about and a quick word on your stance. Clarity is essential here as the start of the paragraph is the first time your reader will engage with your point, and if there is irrelevant information, there will be things you can’t address in the body of your paragraph, which will count against you.

Evidence

Essays are persuasive writing, and because of that, you aim to get the reader to either change their minds or trust your information and agree with you. In either instance, speaking with knowledge and authority is essential to a persuasive voice. The best way to create a trustworthy voice is through evidence. It would help if you showed readers that your point is based on fact and that they should agree because it’s the most logical thing to do. By adding facts and figures to your essay, readers can compare the conclusion you’re drawing to the evidence you provide and, hopefully, leave them with no choice but to agree.

Explain

You’ve made a compelling point; given all your evidence, you must explain what it all means. Most instances of persuasive writing will have a call to action – this means something the writer wants the reader to do. With a PEEL essay, the call to action is to inform a reader and have them agree that your point is sound. The explanation is where you’re going to make the most influence on a reader to agree with you. Clearly explain how your evidence supports your point, and ensure there isn’t any doubt as to why you’re right.

Link

Linking is a way to end one point while starting a new one. It can be tricky to introduce a new idea when completing the last one, but an essay’s structure becomes messy if this doesn’t happen.

Once you’ve concluded your point and are ready to move on to something else, find a way to bridge the gap between the two. Is there something they share that can take you forward? If there isn’t, that could show something is missing in your essay, or you should restructure the order of your points, so they all flow together. Linking is the part of a paragraph that will inform how you write your essay. Think before you start writing about which points link together closely, and you’ll easily be able to create an essay story that won’t be confusing.

The rainbow has seven colors: red; orange; yellow; green; blue; indigo, and violet. However, there is a whole range of colors that we cannot distinguish with the naked eye. A rainbow is not a pure spectrum. It’s made of many spectral colors that overlap and mix.

What are rainbows?

Aristotle is known as the first scholar to spend a lot of time studying rainbows and what they are. Many scholars and scientists throughout history have continued these studies; rainbows are created when light (usually from the sun) passes through water droplets in Earth’s atmosphere.

What are rainbows commonly associated with?

• In the Book of Genesis of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament, a rainbow comes after the flood in the story of Noah as a symbol of God’s promise to never destroy all life on Earth with a global flood again.
• In later Irish folklore, it is said that leprechauns hide pots of gold at the end of rainbows.
• For LGBT+ people, the rainbow is a symbol of diversity and pride. It can often be seen flying on flags as a part of Pride events. In addition, many LGBT+ people and their allies wear rainbow clothing or own rainbow accessories all year round.

What is a color?

Color is what your eyes see when light is reflected off an object. To see color, you have to have light. Color has three properties:

• Hue: This is the name of a color, like red or blue.
• Value: This is the lightness or darkness of a hue; this can be adjusted by adding black or white.
• Intensity (or saturation): This is how bright or dull a hue is.

What are the colors of the rainbow associated with?

Red

• Heat: Red is often associated with hot temperatures. You will often find that hot water taps have a small red indicator on them to help you to tell the difference between the hot and cold taps.
• Love: This color is often considered very romantic, especially when paired with the classic ‘heart’ symbol. You may see a lot of red on Valentine’s Day, such as red roses or chocolates wrapped in red foil.
• Danger or ‘stop!’: Red means ‘ threat’ on many roads or other warning signs. One of the most essential is the ‘stop’ sign that lets drivers know they must stop driving. Red is also used on traffic lights to tell drivers they must stop.
• Anger: When someone is angry, their face flushes and becomes red.

Color fact: Red was one of the first colors used in Prehistoric art, from a pigment made from ochre.

Orange

• Fruit: Unsurprisingly, fruit is the first thing many think of when they think of the color orange. Oranges are citrus fruit known for their tasty juice and for being rich in vitamin C.
• Warnings: Traffic cones are orange in color. Another warning is the amber traffic light signal, which is orange-yellow and warns the driver that they must prepare to stop.
• Autumn: Leaves will often turn varying shades of orange-red during this season. We also think of harvesting vegetables like carrots or pumpkins. Pumpkins remind us of Halloween when seeing this color, which takes place in October every year.
• Fire: the warm glow of a bonfire or fireplace is mostly orange-red; this makes us think of warmth.
• Fish: some of the most famous types of fish, such as koi carp, goldfish, and clownfish, are orange in color.

Color fact: Orange was called ‘geoluhread’ in Old English, which means ‘yellow-red.’

Yellow

• The Sun: Perhaps the first thing you may consider when considering yellow is sunshine. Yellow is a bright primary color, and many other things associated with yellow, such as blonde hair or buttercup flowers, are compared to the sun so often that it has become a cliché. One flower, the sunflower, is even named after the sun due to its lovely yellow petals. This association with the sun’s warmth is likely why yellow makes many people think about happiness.
• Food: Many delicious foods come to mind when we think about yellow. Ripe bananas, honeydew melons, bright egg yolks, fields full of corn, and creamy butter.
• Spring: Yellow, especially pastel yellow, is considered a Springtime color. Bright yellow baby chicks and ducklings are usually born in Spring, and daffodils bloom in Springtime too.
• Bees: bees (and wasps!) are usually covered in yellow-and-black stripes. Their vibrant color makes them easy to spot amongst the grass in your garden.

Green

• Nature: So many beautiful plants we see are at least partially green. The grass in our garden, the leaves on trees, and even the stems of flowers are all green! It is in part due to the process of photosynthesis. A green pigment called chlorophyll allows plants to absorb sunlight and turn it into energy that lets them grow. This association between green and nature has led to the phrase ‘green thumb.’ Someone is said to have a green thumb if they are a good gardener. Green and images of green leaves are associated with green energy, another name for renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power.
• Emeralds: Emeralds are a kind of beautiful green gemstone. They are used to symbolize a 55^th wedding anniversary.
• Envy (or jealousy): Have you ever heard the phrase ‘green with envy’? The color green has historically been associated with envy, with some calling envy ‘the green-eyed monster. This association dates back to the ancient Greeks, who believed jealousy was caused by an excess of bile, which gave the skin a green tint.

Blue

• Oceans and the Earth: About 71% of the Earth’s surface is covered in water, inspiring the name of David Attenborough’s famous documentary, Blue Planet.
• Calm: Blue is often associated with feelings of calm and tranquillity; this means it is usually a popular paint color choice when decorating places people want to calm down or relax, such as the waiting rooms at dentists’ offices, hospitals, or therapy/spa settings.
• The Blues: If you are sad, this can sometimes be called ‘the blues’ as blue has long been associated with sadness; this likely inspired the name of the musical genre, ‘The Blues.’ This genre has its roots in the oral tradition of African American work songs, which were sung to help communicate and alleviate the pain of loss and injustice.

Color fact: Blue is said to be the world’s favorite color, usually topping polls and surveys worldwide when people are asked which color they prefer!

Indigo
Indigo is a spectral color often described as ‘dark blue.’

• Denim: Indigo dye is used to give jeans their traditional indigo color. This dye has two sources: the indigo plant or the woad plant Isatis tinctoria.
• Indigobirds: Male indigobirds are a beautiful, almost-metallic shade of indigo.
• Lactarius indigo: This species of fungi is an indigo-colored mushroom.
• Eastern indigo snake: This snake is named after indigo. It is a dark blue/black color found in the southeastern United States.

Violet

Violet is often conflated with purple. Violet is a spectral color, whereas purple combines red and blue light. They are perceived to look very similar.

• Violets: When thinking of violets, many will first think about the beautiful bloom of the sweet violet flower.
• Foods: There are many popular purple and violet foods in nature. Grapes, plums, aubergines, and purple carrots. Despite their name, blackberries and blackcurrants are purple too! Also, violets are edible flowers that can be used as decoration on cakes or other dishes. Their floral flavor is often used in sweet dishes and desserts.
• Luxury: Violet and purple have a strong historical association with royalty and the wealthy, as the purple fabric was previously costly; this started with Roman emperors and continued for centuries. It is also associated with luxury because it is a complementary color with yellow/gold; gold jewelry was often placed on purple fabric or a violet box to make it stand out. Nowadays, purple is often used in the packaging of products to imply luxury. You can probably find many examples of this in your local supermarket, from decadent chocolate biscuits to cosmetics and hair care bottles.

The ancient Egyptians worshipped over 2,000 gods and goddesses, with each god playing an essential role in everyday life. It is known as a polytheistic religion. Some of the most crucial Egyptian gods include:

• Ra – God of the Sun
• Anubis – God of the Dead
• Osiris – God of the Underworld
• Horus – God of the Sky
• Isis – Goddess of Good Fortune and Protector of the Dead
• Nut and Geb – God and Goddess of the Sky and Earth
• Amun – God of the Air
• Set – God of the Desert and Chaos
• Thoth – God of Knowledge
• Sekhmet – Goddess of War
• Ptah – God of Craftsmen
• Hathor – Goddess of the Sky and Fertility

Osiris

Osiris was regarded to be one of the most essential ancient gods. Osiris ruled the underworld and was a judge of the dead upon their arriving there. In life, Osiris was murdered by his brother, Seth. From this point onwards, Seth was seen as a criminal and was no longer respected by Egyptian society. Osiris was married to Isis (they were also brother and sister- they did things differently back in ancient times), and together they had a son called Horus, who would later avenge his father’s death. Osiris was often depicted as having green skin, as this symbolized rebirth. He was also shown in tight white clothing, which is thought to be linked to the mummification process that the Egyptians originated. Although he was known as a human god, sometimes gods were known to have heads or bodies of animals.

Isis

Isis was Osiris’s wife and was essential to ancient Egyptian culture. Lots of temples were built to honor Isis. She represented protection, healing, motherhood, children, and nature as a goddess. Pharaohs believed that she was their protector and she acted as a mother figure. It was thought that Isis had the power to heal, and legend says that she recovered her son Horus from a scorpion sting. It is also said that she is the one who brought Osiris back to life through her love for him. Isis was often drawn onto coffins to protect the dead from evil spirits.

Horus

As well as being the son of Osiris and Isis, Horus was the god of the sky. Horus was well respected throughout ancient Egyptian society as he fought his uncle Seth to avenge his father’s death and ultimately become the king of Egypt. Horus lost his eye in this battle, and this is where the term ‘eye of Horus’ comes from. The eye of Horus became one of the most important symbols in Ancient Egypt. The eye of Horus was a powerful amulet (a piece of jewelry) that could fight off evil, disease, and danger. The symbol of the eye of Horus was often painted on boats to protect them from shipwrecks and storms. It was believed that Horus was very handsome and generally depicted as having a falcon head. Horus was well respected throughout ancient Egypt, and the ruling Pharoah was always considered to be the living image of Horus. Upon death, the Pharoah would become Osiris.

Seth

Seth’s cult was considered the oldest in Egypt, and some Pharaohs were known to honor him. He was at one time thought to be a valuable god, and Egyptians prayed to him so he could help their dead family members. However, after he murdered his brother Osiris, the public opinion of Seth changed. He was viewed as the direct opposite of Horus, who was well respected and loved in society. Seth was seen as the god of darkness, war, and chaos- he ultimately became an enemy. He was often associated with the color red, which the ancient Egyptians hated; they believed red represented destruction.

Amun

Amun was the god of the air, sun, and sky and was eventually thought of as the national god of Egypt. Amun was depicted in several ways but most commonly wore a double-plumed crown. He was initially shown to have red or brown skin, but with a religious revolution, Amun was then depicted as having blue skin to represent air. During the period known as the New Kingdom (1570-1070 bc), Amun became the national god of Egypt. Pharaoh Akhenaten established the sun god Aten as the only god of Egypt during his rule, but this ultimately ended with his death.

Anubis

Anubis was thought to have invented the process of embalming. Mummification was a massive part of Egyptian culture and would take weeks to complete. Those who would complete the embalming process dressed up like Anubis. Prayers to Anubis are found in most Egyptian tombs. Anubis translates from greek to mean ‘man with a jackal head. It was thought that if you didn’t live a good and honest life, Anubis would send you to be eaten.

Ra

The sun god, Ra, was a human with a falcon head crowned with a sun disk that Uraeus, the sacred Cobra, encircled. The holy cobra was an emblem of royalty and authority. Ra was also considered an underworld god and was closely associated with Osiris. His central cult and following were at Heliopolis, also known as the ‘sun city,’ which would have been located near modern-day Cairo. Ra was often depicted holding an ankh, a symbol of eternal life.

Thoth

One of the most famous animal-headed gods was Thoth, the god of knowledge and hieroglyphs, and he was thought to have invented them. Thoth had no parents and no children. Other Egyptian gods would seek advice from Thoth before going into battle. Thoth had many jobs, like maintaining the universe and settling arguments between other gods. It was thought that Thoth would judge those who would die. He is known as a human ibis (sacred bird), and it was felt that he created the heavens and earth.

Sekhmet

Also known as the ‘excellent lady,’ ‘holy one,’ and ‘powerful one,’ Sekhmet was among the oldest and most well-respected Egyptian goddesses. Sekhmet had the body of a woman and the face of a lion. She was widely known for her violence and her power. Sekhmet was often associated with the desert and fire, as her personality was hot-tempered and violent.

Ptah

Ptah built the structure of the universe and was the mastermind architect. Ancient Egyptians believed that Ptah created the excellent metal plate that was the floor of heaven and the top of the sky. Ptah even made the other gods by imagining them in his heart and then using his voice to breathe life into them- without Ptah, there would be no gods! He is considered one of the most unique-looking gods; he was a bald man who wore a beard and tight-fitting clothing that made him look like a mummy.

Hathor

The goddess of love, fertility, beauty, music, and laughter, Hathor was one of the oldest Egyptian gods and had the appearance of a cow and a woman. She had many different personalities and was very popular but could also be vicious. It was thought that she was the wife of Horus. Hathor would care for souls once they reached the underworld by feeding them. Many Egyptian children were named after Hathor. While she was very caring, she was also known to terrorize and cause distress to those she thought deserved it.

Nephthys

The goddess of mourning, Nephthys, was a friend and a protector of the dead. She was also the goddess of night, rivers, sleep, and nature! It was thought that Nephthys would stand at the end of coffins and take you to the underworld. It was also believed that she would comfort women during childbirth. Nephthys were generally worshipped and respected throughout ancient Egypt. Nephthys was also a very loyal sister to Isis.

Formal writing is any writing that’s written formally. Being formal means following social rules, conventions, and etiquette; writing means writing in a short, concise manner to convey information. The most frequent pieces of formal writing are letters, but formal writing can also be a news report, an email, an essay, or a work of non-fiction. Formal writing is closely related to formal speech.

The Rules of Formal Writing

A piece of formal writing can be adjusted, but it’s worth being aware of the main features of formal writing. Here is a handy checklist of the essential elements for a piece of formal writing:

• Regularly contain compound sentences: Sentences in formal writing are often long and complex. Therefore, they make use of compound sentences which are sentences that include two or more clauses. E.g., “Ian enjoyed swimming yet preferred to play football.”
• Aims to be objective: A formal piece of writing is more concerned with presenting facts rather than opinions. Therefore, while you will have an idea of the topic, you must use statistics and factual evidence to support your views. Furthermore, formal writing should be written in the third person, so no “I” or “you.”
• Do not use slang: Formal writing is seen as more professional. That means not saying something is “lit” or “on point.” An exception to this rule would be if the essay were about slang or colloquial language.
• Excellenter range and diversity of vocabulary: In addition to not using slang, it’s necessary for a piece of formal writing to be of a high level. That means avoiding repetition by using synonyms and using more descriptive words. An example would be, instead of saying something is good, say how beneficial it is.
• Doesn’t use contractions: Contractions should be avoided at all costs when it comes to formal writing. That means using “can not” instead of “can’t” and “will not” instead of “won’t.”

Types of Formal Writing

Formal Letters

One thing you might have to write formally is a letter. For example, these would be written if you must write to your bank or apply for a job. Formal letters should have your address, the date, the recipient’s address, a greeting, the message, and a farewell.

Formal Emails

The likelihood is that you won’t have to write and post many letters due to the bulk of correspondence happening through email. So when you’re writing a formal email as a complaint or as part of a job application, the same rules apply only to the content of your letter.

You won’t have to include your address at the top, but the greeting and farewell should be the same. You should also include an appropriate title in the subject line and have a signature that includes your full name and – where relevant – your job title, website, or social media links.

News Reports

When a journalist writes a news article, they must do it formally to convey the facts in a calm, concise and detailed manner. One reason is that some news is terrible, and it would be inappropriate to write about that in a fun, informal way. They’re written to inform and not to entertain, so they don’t contain any casual language.

However, not all articles in newspapers and websites are news reports. Feature articles and columns are written to entertain and inform, so they use more informal language.

Essays

Usually found in academic settings, you must be formal when writing an essay. In an essay, you’re generally making an argument and backing it up with facts and evidence from various sources. They exist to inform and not to entertain. When writing an essay, you should refrain from using personal pronouns such as ‘I’ and ‘me.’ You should cite any sources you use in your footnotes and a reading list.

Non-Fiction Books

Some non-fiction books are also written formally. They’re written to inform readers about a subject, usually to do with history or geography. Cookery books are another type of formal non-fiction writing as they contain many instructions.

While they won’t be as formal as essays, non-fiction books educate readers, so they have to include many dates, names, and events without being very clear. Concise standard language makes things easier to understand, and many technical terminologies are used for more complex topics.

Some non-fiction books are informal, like a few autobiographies, but some blend formal and casual styles, like creative non-fiction.

Formal vs. Informal

Your class may assume that formal writing is better than informal writing. However, both have their uses, and neither is inherently excellent. Here’s a handy list of comparisons to bear in mind when teaching your class the differences between formal and informal writing:

• Informal writing has short, simple sentences, while formal writing sentences are more complex and prolonged.

• We must use the third person in formal writing. However, it would help if you used the first-person perspective in informal writing.

• The tone of an informal piece of writing is more friendly. On the other hand, formal writing is official and, therefore, more severe.
• When it comes to voice, pieces of informal writing will use the active voice. Formal writing, on the other hand, uses the passive voice.
• While pieces of formal writing are objective, you can be more empathetic and personal when it comes to informal writing.

It’s good to remember these differences to know when it is best to use them. For example, if you’re writing an essay about an essential topic, you want to use formal writing. On the other hand, if you’re writing a letter to a friend or posting on social media, informal writing is suitable.

What is Formal Language?

By now, you’ll probably understand what formal writing is. But what specific language should you use, and what should you avoid? Here are a few examples:

• If you’re writing a formal letter to someone called Adam Smith, you will start with ‘Dear Mr. Smith.’ Avoid using the informal ‘Hi Adam.’
• Don’t use contractions. Use words like ‘cannot’ or ‘would not’ instead of ‘can’t’ or ‘won’t.’
• Don’t include any slang. If you can’t find it in the Oxford English Dictionary, you probably won’t be able to use it. Use ‘How are you?’ instead of ‘Wagwan my G?’
• Try to use longer words. Informal writing uses many shorter Anglo-Saxon words, while longer ones have Latin or Greek origins. Dictionaries usually say whether or not a word is formal.
• Try using different connectives. Instead of using ‘and’ all the time, you can include words like ‘furthermore,’ ‘in addition to,’ and ‘moreover.’ A thesaurus can help if you’re struggling to think of longer words to use.
• You could use expert language and jargon if you got across expertise. For example, if writing about the internet, use terms like ‘URL’ and ‘HTML’ instead of ‘web address’ and ‘website code.’
• As well as using more complex language, it would help if you also used more complex punctuation. For example, use a semi-colon to join two related sentences or an em dash to add extra information to a sentence.

What formal writing topics are there?

When it comes to formal writing, you can realistically cover whatever you want to. However, with so much to choose from, your class may find this prospect a bit daunting.

Please don’t fret; we’ve got you covered! Here’s a list of some interesting formal writing topics that your class can discuss:

• Should we have to do homework? How helpful is it?
• What are the arguments for and against driving cars?
• Are actors and professional athletes paid too much?
• Do you think there is life on other planets?
• Do video games make people violent? What benefits are there to playing them?
• Should students be made to wear uniforms at school? Should teachers?
• Do you think mobile phones are dangerous? Should there be a minimum age set for using one?
• Are we becoming too dependent on technology? Does the good outweigh the bad?
• Should you be allowed to use your phones at concerts?
• Are TV shows and movies better now than they used to be?

Try allocating one of these ideas to your class and see how many exciting perspectives come about; this could be an independent task or a group assessment where one group argues the pros while the other discusses the cons.