Teaching Strategies, Tactics, and Methods

What is the symbol of Christianity?

The Crucifix/Cross

The main symbol of Christianity is the cross, a symbol of the crucifixion of Jesus and his passion. In the Bible, Jesus walks with and carries the heavy cross a long way to his crucifixion. In Christianity, Jesus is considered to have sacrificed himself and died for others’ sins. In this sense, the heavy cross symbolizes Jesus’s heavy burden for all Christians. The cross has many meanings, symbols, and interpretations, depending on the individual. What does the symbol of the crucifix mean to you?

A Dove

A dove is a small white bird. It can often be found in Catholic churches on stained glass windows. The dove is the symbol of the Holy Spirt. In the Bible, a dove descended on him when Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist. The dove is a recurring symbol in the Bible, and it’s often depicted carrying an olive branch, as seen in the story of Noah’s ark. A dove with an olive branch symbolizes forgiveness and acceptance.

A Rosary

A rosary is a string of beads connected with a crucifix used in the Roman Catholic Church to help people say their prayers.

The Lamb

Jesus is often represented as a lamb –specifically, the Lamb of God. He is often depicted as a lamb in the Bible. The whiteness of the lamb is a symbol of innocence and purity. Lambs are also associated with sacrifice – specifically in the Old Testament in the Bible. Jesus, the sacrificial Lamb, sacrificed his life for Christianity.

The Eucharist (the bread and wine)

The bread and wine you receive in Church are also referred to as the Eucharist. The Bible tells us that this tradition began at the Last Supper, the night before Jesus was crucified. He brought his closest followers together, and they celebrated the annual Jewish feast of Passover. At the end of their meal, Jesus took some bread and wine and turned them into a personal memorial. He wanted his followers to remember the sacrifice he was about to make by losing his life. The Bible states that he says, “this is my body, given for you; do this in memory of me.” In the same way, he then takes the cup of wine and says, “this cup is the new covenant in my blood, which is poured out for you.”

The bread symbolizes Jesus’ body, and the wine represents Jesus’ blood and the life he sacrificed for Christianity. The elements of the bread and wine can vary – the bread may be a wafer or a part of a loaf of bread. Sometimes the wine is alcoholic, and sometimes it can be red fruit juice. The bread and the wine only become the body and blood of Jesus Christ after transubstantiation, where the priest says a Eucharistic prayer for this process to occur.

The narrative structure is the story’s content and the form used to tell the story.

This feature of a creative text generally describes the order and manner in which a narrative is presented to a reader, listener, or viewer. The frameworks of a narrative text structure are the plot and the setting.

This can also depend on the genre and medium of a story. For example, a ‘whodunnit’ will typically have an orientation (beginning) that sets up the crime, the victim, and the protagonist involved in solving it. Then, in the middle part of the story, we follow the main character as they weigh up who might have committed the crime and how. The criminal is usually revealed at the conclusion, and the reader finds out how it was done.

As for a medium, plays and films are good examples, as they traditionally employ a three-act structure that helps to build tension and suspense across a narrative.

Why is Narrative Structure Important?

Narratives tell stories, and stories help us connect. They are written to entertain and to share experiences with a reader. Narratives can be written in many mediums, such as novels, short stories, poems, diaries, and even biographies.

The narrative structure is an essential tool in a writer’s arsenal, as it allows them to grab the audience’s attention and keep them engaged. However, the way a story is told can make it dull, ordinary, or engaging, depending on the approach.

What is the structure of a narrative?

Here are some of the main parts of a narrative. It’s important to note that the writer’s plot, style, and personality will subtly change this structure, but these are some main parts to think about when reading and writing stories.

Orientation

1. This gives the reader an idea of what the text will be about.
2. The main character and sometimes other characters are introduced.
3. The setting, place, and time are introduced.

Complication

1. A problem, complication, or dilemma is put onto the main character, which they must find a way to overcome.
2. This prompts the characters to face more events to solve the original problem.

Series of Events

1. Paragraphs explain and tell the story by exploring a series of events.
2. The feelings of the main character (and other characters) about the problem and other events are shown throughout this section.

Resolution

1. The problem, complication, or dilemma is sorted out, and the emotional stress is resolved.
2. The series of events is brought to a close.

Coda

This part of the text is optional.

1. If there is a moral or a lesson to be learned from the text, it is written at the end.
2. We might also find out what happened to other characters in the story.

What are some structural devices in English?

Structural devices in English are literary devices related to the structure of a text. These devices influence how a text is structured and laid out. Here are some standard structural devices in English:

• • A story arc: a story arc has a beginning, a middle, and an end. There is usually a crisis point within the story that is resolved at the end.
  • Dual narrative: a dual narrative gives two sides to a story and alternates between viewpoints throughout the story.
  • Circular narrative: in a circular narrative, the end of a piece of writing takes you right back to the beginning of it.
  • Flashback: this is where the main narrative takes place at one time, but there are flash-backs and episodes from the past.

What are some famous examples of narrative structure?

There’s not a ‘one style fits all’ approach when it comes to narrative structure. The construction of a story will naturally differ depending on the story being told and the medium in which it is being said. For example, you would not expect the same structure in a short story as in a film, as these two mediums have different expectations and audience experiences to work with. Nevertheless, some common narrative structures might inspire your lessons on this topic.

• • 1. The Hero’s Journey. This kind of narrative used to be the bee’s knees back in Homer’s day. When Homer wrote The Odyssey around 1614, epic poems were the height of fiction, so their structure was considered the benchmark. ‘The Hero’s Journey’ uses an eight-part cyclical system, which starts with a call to adventure, an eventual passing of the threshold (or the halfway point), and a return home. By the end, the hero is back in the position they started in, having learned something along the way.
    2. A Five-Part Structure. This standard structure includes an orientation, conflict, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. If that sounds familiar, these are all alternative terms to the structure we used above!
    3. Fractured Narrative. This more complex narrative features jumping back in time or quick movements between different perspectives. If it sounds confusing, it’s because it often is! These kinds of records can allow the writer to use confusion to their advantage, making the reader feel the same emotions as the characters in the story. It’s also used frequently in science fiction narratives that feature time traveling.

What is Speech in English language writing?

Speech writing conveys a thought or message to a reader using the correct punctuation and expression. Speech writing isn’t much different from any other form of narrative essay.

There are8 parts of speech in the English language. These parts are nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

• Noun: A noun is a naming word for things, animals, people, places, and feelings. Nouns are the building blocks for most sentences.
• Pronoun: Pronouns are words that can be used instead of a noun. They are used so that we don’t have to repeat words. This helps our writing and speech flow much more smoothly.
• Verb: A verb is an action or ‘doing’ word. These are particularly important for your kids’ grammar lessons since you cannot have a complete sentence without a verb. After all, verbs can describe an action that’s doing something.
• Adjective: An adjective is also known as a describing word. An adjective usually comes before a noun to provide more detail or information.
• Prepositions: A preposition is a word that informs you where or when something is about something else.
• Conjunction: Conjunctions are different in every language, so conjunctions in English vary from conjunctions that you’ll come across in other languages. They primarily join words that connect two sentences, thoughts, or ideas.
• Interjections: Interjections are words utilized to express solid feelings or sudden emotions.

What are speeches, and when are they used

Speeches are the most common form of public address, politicians make them, and others are powerful and are usually made to change people’s minds. Speeches are a form of persuasive writing – look here to learn more about persuasive essays.

How do you start a speech in the English language?

How you begin your speech in English can set the tone for the rest of your speech. There are multiple ways for you to start speeches in your lessons this term. For instance, try some of these appealing speech in English language starters.

• Rhetorical questions: A rhetorical question is a figure of speech that comes in the form of a question that makes a point instead of seeking an answer. A rhetorical question may have an answer, but if someone asks it to emphasize the topic. Rhetorical questions can be an effective way for students to begin their speech in English. Opening your text can appeal to the audience and get them thinking about how they relate to your topic.
• Statistics: If you are writing an informative or persuasive speech in an English lesson, using statistics can reinforce the speaker’s authority and knowledge of a topic. Try using a surprising statistic or fact that will resonate with the audience to get your point across immediately and trigger an emotional response.
• Set up an imaginary scene: If you want to persuade your audience to agree with your speech, try creating a fictional scene in their minds. This way f, opening your speech helps each audience member visualize a great scenario you want to see become real.

How to write a good speech.

Do you want to change the world? If so, you’ll need all the tips and tricks to write the perfect speech. Here are some essential tips and techniques fantastic public speakers use.

Structure

When you’re writing a speech, you need to focus on structure. Great speechwriters compose their lessons in the same form as a narrative structure. The audience will be taken on a journey, and the speech will be the path they follow. Speeches will usually follow a set structure that comes in three parts. It would help if you had a captivating opener, a comprehensive middle, and an impactful ending.

Even if your speech is long, it’s one idea. Remember to stick to the story formula, and you won’t go far wrong. Adding transitions into your speech will help each point move from the next. You want to guide your audience through your argument.

The opening

This needs to be grabbing. Take people’s attention right away. The purpose of a speech is to engage people and convince them to think or act along with you. The best start is to create an opening line that states your intention, a question, or a shocking statistic.

The middle

The middle is where you get into the swing of your argument. It is the bulk of any speech. You should include a series of reasons and arguments for why the audience should agree with you.

A key feature of speech writing is objection handling. As a speech is a monologue, there isn’t room to take questions or objections. However, a powerful speech will be able to address any complaints that might arise in the speech itself. That way, you’re answering questions as they come to the audience.

There is a secondary use of objection handling, which gives you a sense of authority. To persuade an audience, they need to be able to see you as someone who has expertise. It would help if you resembled someone they want to follow.

The end

You want the audience to leave your speech remembering your message. Therefore, the end is usually the most memorable part of your speech. For example, you could end with a recap of the most critical points, link all your speech together, or end with a call to action.

A call to action can be powerful as it inspires the audience to do something. This can be framed as a question, such as “Will you help?” and is intended to make the audience agree. For example, for most political speeches, the call to action could be to vote in favor of a person or change. Remember, people will talk about the end of a speech, so make sure it’s something to talk about!

Language

The key to any tremendous persuasive and speech writing is to know who you’re talking to and to tailor your language to that person. If the audience is small, you can afford to be more specific, perhaps even name audience members. Choose words that will resonate with a larger audience if your audience is broad. Keep the message simple, and apply it to all types of listeners. This will increase your chances of changing people’s minds.

The language you can use in a speech differs from the audience to audience. A key point of speech writing is to know your audience. For example, academic speeches tend to use formal language. This means avoiding the use of “I” so the content of the speech is depersonalized. The persuasion comes from the work’s strength, not a personal plea.

Other speeches, where a unique idea or opinion is the focus, usually involve much more informal language. When these speeches are made, it can be necessary for the speaker to relate to the audience. In addition, it will make the call to action seem like a group effort.

Emotion language

Making your audience respond emotionally to your speech can be a compelling feature of speech writing. Choosing the right words will create a feeling in your listener. This is using emotional language.

Sometimes, if an audience feels empathy or emotional about a subject, this can trump their rational thinking. It’s a very persuasive technique to appeal to your listener’s thoughts and feelings. The strongest emotions can be things like sadness, anger, or happiness.

When an issue requires social change, indignant language can be moving – by describing injustices and sufferings in the world, there is an appeal to sympathy.

To ensure your audience feels the same way you do about your subject, use the pronouns we and our. This will help them to connect with your topic.

Rhetorical devices in persuasive writing that use emotive language are similes, metaphors, and anecdotes.

Questions

Questions are a powerful tool for getting your message across. They also can inspire thought from your audience. As the speaker does not intend to open a dialogue, questions are posed for the audience to respond intuitively with an answer. These questions could take the form of a literal or rhetorical questions.

The use of rhetorical questions is a common feature of speech writing. It encourages an audience to agree with the speaker on their own accord.

Quotes

Often speakers use quotes to reinforce the message of their speeches. Quotes are an excellent device for setting the tone of your speech or delivering an idea in the best words possible. If you can’t think of how to say your message, why not pick a phrase which can?

A quote can also add value to a speaker’s argument. If you use a quote from a highly respected source, this can give credibility to your voice.

It’s also another way to link your speech to what the audience already knows. If your audience recognizes the quote, they will connect how they feel or think about it to your speech. The desired impact can be achieved by carefully selecting the right quotes when speech writing.

Silence

When you are speech writing, it is crucial to remember how the words will sound off the page. One of the most commanding techniques public speakers use is silence. Sound simple right?

Pausing or eliciting silence within the flow of your speech can create a monumental impact. Choosing a silence at the correct time gives the listener a chance to absorb, reflect and review your message. This is a fantastic way of keeping the audience focused and engaged. It gives them time to rest and let the message sink in. There’s a reason for the phrase “dramatic pause.”

Conversely, saying nothing is the best way to keep your audience’s attention. With silence, you build anticipation in the audience. You’re provoking them to wonder what you’ll say next. Furthermore, silence installs the idea that your words are too important to be hurried; they deserve time and space to be told. This is why every great speechwriter will indicate where to add silence to their work.

Length is a measurement that identifies the distance between two points. It also measures an object’s length, height, and width.

Children will learn about length in maths lessons to help them solve practical problems in learning and life.

As part of the learning material, pupils will need to learn the different units of length measurement. So let’s look into this a bit further.

The Metric System: Units of Measurement of Length

Based on the metric system, the standard unit of length is a meter (m). But sometimes, the meter might not be suitable for measuring – for example; our fingers are much shorter than a meter! So that’s why there are other units we can convert a meter into to make it easier for us.

Here are some of the most common units of measuring length:

Millimeter (mm)

A millimeter is a tiny unit of length equal to 0.001 meters. Children can put 10-15 pieces of paper on each other to see how small a millimeter is!

Centimeter (cm)

The following unit of measuring length is a centimeter (cm). One centimeter is equivalent to 10 mm, so it’s a larger unit than millimeters. However, it’s equal to 0.01 meters, making it a relatively small unit. On average, mobile phones today are about 11-13 centimeters.

Meters (m)

When we have 100 centimeters, this makes 1 meter. This is the standard unit of length and is very often used daily. For instance, during the Covid-19 pandemic, we were told to keep a 2-meter distance.

Kilometer (km)

A kilometer is a large unit of measurement of length. It’s equal to 1000 meters. It’s often used when measuring the distance between cities and countries.

The Metric System: Converting between the Different Units

Here’s a handy reference guide on converting between the different units of measurement of length:

1. Millimetres to other units

• 1 millimetre = 0.1 centimetre
• 1 millimetre = 0.001 metre
• 1 millimetre =0.000001 kilometre

2. Centimetres to other units

• 1 centimetre = 10 millimetres
• 1 centimetre = 0.01 metre
• 1 centimetre = 0.00001 kilometre

3. Kilometres to other units

• 1 kilometre = 1000000 millimetres
• 1 kilometre = 100000 centimetres
• 1 kilometre = 1000 metres

Imperial Units of Measurement of Length

The imperial unit system, also known as the British Imperial, is a system of measuring length, which uses different units of measurement than the ones explained above. Here are a few of the common imperial units which are used today:

Inch (in)

An inch is about two and a half centimeters. For example, most pencils are 5 inches long.

Foot (ft)

A foot (not the body part!) is 12 inches or around 30.48 centimeters.

Yard (yd)

One yard equals 3 ft, and it’s a little less than a meter (precisely 0.9144).

Mile (mi)

A mile is equal to 1.6 kilometers. This unit is often used to measure distances in the United Kingdom. For example, if you travel from Manchester to Birmingham, the distance is 85 miles.

The Imperial Unit System: Converting between the Different Units

Here are the most common measures that pupils will need to learn to convert:

• 1 inch = 2.5 centimetres
• 1 foot = 12 inches
• 1 foot = 30.48 centimetres
• 1 yard = 3 feet
• 1 yard = 0.91 metres
• 1 mile = 1.6 kilometres

What are regular and irregular plural nouns?

Regular plural nouns are the group which most nouns fall under. These words can be turned from singular to plural by adding a suffix such as -es or -s to the end. These are just a few examples of regular plurals:

• Apple becomes ‘apples.’
• Potato becomes ‘potatoes.’
• The party becomes ‘parties.’

There are a few rules to follow with regular plurals, but generally speaking, you can figure out what suffix a noun needs by looking at the word ending. For example, words that end with a vowel followed by a ‘y’, such as ‘day,’ end with the suffix -s.

Irregular plural nouns are where things start to get complicated. These rulebreakers don’t follow the same spelling conventions as regular plurals and don’t become plural by adding a -s or -es suffix. So, for example, the plural for the word leaf is ‘leaves,’ not ‘leaves.’

Here’s the bad news; there’s no simple way to irregular plurals. The only way to learn many of these nouns is to memorize them. The good news is that irregular plural nouns fall into several groups. Knowing these groups will help make learning irregular plural nouns more manageable.

Unchanging Nouns:

Let’s start with the most specific group of irregular plurals that don’t change. Unchanging nouns are words where the spelling of their singular form is the same as its plural form. They’re often used in nouns that refer to animals and fish. Some examples of these are:

• Fish
• Sheep
• Rice
• Aircraft
• Pajamas
• Series
• Trout
• Tuna

Nouns with changing vowels:

Occasionally, irregular plural nouns keep the exact spelling, except one or all vowels are swapped. Here are just a few examples:

• Tooth – teeth
• Man – men
• Woman – women
• Foot – feet
• Oasis – oases
• Goose – geese

Nouns that break standard spelling rules:

Lastly, there are irregular plurals that don’t follow the same spelling conventions as a lot of other nouns. A lot of different words fall under this category. Here are a few examples that pupils might be likely to come across in day-to-day use:

• Mouse -mice
• Loaf – loaves
• Child – children
• Wolf – wolves
• Person – people
• Thief – thieves
• Scarf – scarves

Evaporation

Evaporation describes the process of a liquid becoming a gas due to being heated. Liquids, gases, and solids can change their state due to the transfer of energy involved in a temperature change.

Suppose you’re teaching children about evaporation and how it works. In that case, we will explore this chemical process which refers to the heating of water molecules until they turn to vapor, to help you better understand and explain it. It all comes down to the amount of moisture, the temperature, and solar energy.

This state change can happen when the sun warms the surface of a body of water, and evaporation and condensation are natural processes in the Water Cycle. Humans heat water to create food and drinks and sometimes to purify water, as we have done for thousands of years.

When water gets so hot, it contains gas bubbles. This is called boiling or rapid vaporization rather than evaporation, whereas water becomes steam at a much slower rate when it is simmering. This is because the heat energy breaks the bonds between the water molecules.

Here are a few examples of everyday evaporation to help illustrate this process:

• Puddles outside disappearing
• Clothes drying on a line
• The water level going down in a cup
• Steam from a hot shower or bath
• Using a hairdryer
• Ironing clothes by heating moisture
• Floors and cars drying after cleaning
• Low rivers during hot weather
• Paint drying from a liquid
• Sweat evaporating from our bodies to cool us

This water hasn’t disappeared; it’s heated in the sun and is now floating in the air as vapor – which is much harder for us to see. However, when your breath looks misty in cold air, you can see this moisture because the vapor condenses as it loses heat energy.

Evaporation of a liquid continues until it reaches an equilibrium of evaporation and condensation or until the surrounding air is saturated with water vapor in an enclosed space.

Think about how the walls of a bathroom get wet from warm steam, which has evaporated, condensed on the cold wall, and will eventually evaporate back into the air as humidity. Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air, and humans do it best when the air is at about 30 to 50% humidity.

You might refer to our page on condensation, which is the reverse of evaporation when water vapor cools and becomes liquid again. These are examples of changing states in chemistry, which is essential to learn for many other topics like studying the weather and cooking.Top of Form

Liquid to Gas – Changing States of Matter

Changes in the states of matter will also teach children about melting ice, why it snows, dissolving solids into liquids, where salt comes from, and more. You can discover so much about the world by studying the states of solids, drinks, and gases.

Evaporation and the Water Cycle

Evaporation is one of the four processes within the water cycle, alongside condensation, precipitation, and collection. On our planet, we have a constant amount of water that changes state depending on the conditions of the environment. In nature, water is constantly recycled between these states.

In this cycle, evaporation occurs when the sun heats water and causes the molecules to move faster and faster. Eventually, the water molecules move so quickly that they turn into gas. This gas is called water vapor. Once water vapor is formed, it spends about ten days floating around in the air and slowly but surely rises into the atmosphere.

Once the water vapor rises high enough, it begins to cool down. It then begins to condense and form larger water droplets. These larger and heavier water droplets then gather together to become clouds. Eventually, the clouds become so full of water that they release some forms of precipitation, such as rain or snow.

There are a variety of different places where water can evaporate from on the surface of the planet. Of course, much evaporation comes from the oceans, but water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and streams also contribute significantly towards the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. The rest of the evaporated water comes from biological sources such as plants.

As stated above, the evaporation rate can vary depending on the conditions of the environment. Some of the main conditions that can affect this include:

• The humidity of the air
• The surface area of the liquid
• The temperature of the liquid
• The number of minerals dissolved in the liquid
• The flow rate of the air
• The pressure of the liquid

Practical uses for evaporation and the water cycle:

Evaporation and the water cycle are among Earth’s most important natural processes. Without them, we wouldn’t have rain, and Earth could quickly become uninhabitable.

But as well as this natural process, humans have found many other uses of evaporation and the water cycle.

For example, salt is made through the process of evaporation. Seawater naturally contains saline. When seawater is evaporated, the saline is too dense and heavy to travel upwards, so it remains on Earth, where it crystallizes to become salt.

Humans have manipulated this process for years by making relatively shallow ponds with large surface areas. The combination of the shallowness and the large surface area means that as much water in the pond is being heated up by the sun as possible, making evaporation faster.

As the water evaporates, it leaves behind salt, which is how table salt is made.

A fun and easy experiment you could try to test this is to fill a bowl with a bit of seawater and leave it out in the sun. Before too long, the water will have evaporated, and salt crystals will be left behind. This experiment is a great way to teach children about evaporation and the water cycle.

Teaching Ideas on Evaporation

You can help children’s understanding of this topic with images, slideshows, examples, and some hands-on activities.

Here are a few easy experiments you might like to run with your class or at home:

• Mark lines on a clear water container and checks the level over several days. Then, you can have a covered container for comparison.
• Hand up two matching wet clothes and a fan to blow air on one. Wind will speed up the drying process as water vapor is quickly carried away.
• Put some hand sanitizer on their hands and ask if their hands feel excellent from wet. Then get them to rub their hands until they dry. The alcohol gel has evaporated from their body heat, cooling (and cleaning) their hands in the process!
• Observe puddles on a rainy day, and check back to see if they get smaller after the rain has stopped. You can use cones to mark the edges.
• Boil water in a test tube or kettle so they can see the level going down as it turns to steam. Think about where the water ends up.

What is a force?

A force is simply a push or a pull in a particular direction. Forces result from an object’s interaction with another thing.

In physics, forces are illustrated by arrows. An arrow in that same direction will show the direction of the workforce.

What are the different types of force?

There are two main types of forces: contact forces and non-contact forces.

Contact force

Contact forces result from two objects touching each other.

The following forces are contact forces:

• Frictional force: whenever objects rub against each other, they cause friction. Friction works against the movement of an object and acts in the opposite direction.
• Normal force: the force that supports the weight of an object on a surface. It’s the force that the ground or a surface pushes back up with. It helps us not to fall through the floor!
• Tension force: a pulling force exerted by a string or chain on an object.
• Applied force: a force used on an object by another object or person.
• Air resistance force: a type of frictional force that acts on an object as it moves through the air.
• Spring force: a force applied upon an object by a compressed or stretched spring attached to it.

Non-contact force

Non-contact forces are at play when an object can push or pull another thing without coming into contact with it.

The following forces are non-contact forces:

• Gravitational force: a force by which an object attracts another object towards itself. All things have a gravitational force, but it is most noticeable in large objects like the Earth or the Sun. For example, due to its gravitational force, the Earth pulls all things towards itself.
• Electrical force: a force exerted between two charged objects.
• Magnetic force: otherwise known as magnetism, this is a force that attracts or repels magnetic objects. For example, iron, nickel, and cobalt are magnetic metals, so they are attracted to magnets.

What are push forces?

When children first learn about forces in year one, they’ll learn about the push and pull forces. A push force is a force that pushes an object away from the source of the force.

There are lots of examples of push forces at work in day-to-day life. Pushing a door shut, pushing a trolley in a supermarket, or kicking a football are all great examples.

You might also want to look at swings to help your children understand push forces. For example, if a child is sitting on a swing and you push them, they are propelled away from you due to your effort. This is the result of a push force. Equally, if they’re swinging by themselves, when they kick at the ground, they have pushed away from the floor and into the air – another excellent example of a push force.

What are pull forces?

Pull forces are the opposite of push forces – they pull an object toward the source of the force. Examples include picking up a school bag, dragging a chair across the room, and tightening your shoelaces.

To help children understand pull forces, why not play a game of tug-of-war? This is a fun and simple exercise to help them know pull forces. By pulling on the rope, each team will be able to move it closer toward them. Whichever team can exert the larger pull force will win!

Thermometer

A thermometer is an instrument used to measure temperature. Please read about how different thermometers work and check out our brilliant thermometer resources!

What is a thermometer?

Find out all about what a thermometer is and how it works!

How a thermometer works for kids

A thermometer is an instrument used to measure temperature. You can measure the temperature of many different things with a thermometer, such as the temperature of a room to see how hot or cold it is, the temperature of a person to tell if they are sick, or the temperature of food to check if it is cooked.

The temperature is usually displayed in degrees Celsius, but it can also be Fahrenheit. This is because Celsius and Fahrenheit are two different scales for measuring temperature.

The main types of thermometers are new digital thermometers, including infrared and older mercury thermometers.

Mercury thermometers

Mercury thermometers look like sealed glass tubes with a liquid inside and numbers marked on the side to display the temperature. The liquid is called mercury, perfect for measuring temperatures because it changes from a solid to liquid very easily and is the only metal in liquid form at room temperature. In addition, mercury has a high boiling point, so it is suitable to measure higher temperatures.

How do mercury thermometers work?

1. When the tip of the mercury thermometer touches the material it is measuring; the material conducts heat energy to the mercury.
2. Then the mercury expands as it becomes liquid and rises the tube.
3. The place where the mercury stops on the scale is where you can take the temperature reading.

Handy! But these thermometers are being phased out because the mercury is toxic if the thermometer breaks.

Digital thermometers

Digital thermometers use an electronic computer chip to tell the temperature. The tip of a digital thermometer is sensitive to heat, so it can accurately measure the temperature and tell the computer chip what the measurement is.

Often used to take medical readings, digital thermometers are the most accurate way to test someone’s temperature to see if they are ill.

How do digital thermometers work?

1. When the temperature changes, the sensor inside a digital thermometer notices a difference in electronic reading from the resistor (part of an electric circuit that limits the flow of electricity).
2. This change in resistance is then converted into a change in temperature.
3. A number then gives a digital reading of the temperature on the screen.

This process takes about 30 seconds, which is faster than mercury thermometers, as they take 3 minutes to heat up and give you a reading!

Infrared thermometers

Infrared thermometers are digital thermometers that can measure temperatures from a distance. They can be used when the object you want to measure is very fragile or dangerous to be near. Infrared thermometers can measure temperatures between a few centimeters or many miles away.

How do infrared thermometers work?

1. Infrared thermometers detect radiation from objects caused by the molecules inside objects moving around. The higher the temperature, the faster the molecules move and the more infrared radiation they emit.
2. The radiation from the object is measured and turned into heat by an infrared thermometer.
3. The heat is then turned into electricity and sent to a detector, producing a number on display to indicate the object’s temperature.

These thermometers have been widely used during the COVID-19 pandemic to detect if people have a high temperature from far away, so people don’t have to be too close together.

What are thermometers used for?

Thermometers are super helpful for lots of different things! For example, you may notice a thermometer on your classroom wall to check the room’s temperature or see one in the kitchen to help with cooking. People use thermometers to check if food, such as a roast, is cooked, if hot oil is ready for frying food, or if sugar is melted or burned. Thermometers also check people’s temperatures to see if they are sick with a fever.

What is human evolution?

Evolution is the scientific study of changes in the characteristics of a group of organisms throughout successive generations. For example, in studying human evolution, scientists have theorized that modern human beings evolved from human-like species and other non-human primates that came before us but have now become extinct.

The theory of human evolution is centered around natural selection, accredited to the famous naturalist Charles Darwin. Natural selection is the process by which an organism’s genetic makeup changes over time to allow it to become better suited to survive in its environment. Darwin was a pioneer in the field of human evolution. One of the key takeaways from Darwin’s theories is that all living organisms on Earth share a common ancestor. Moreover, Darwin suggested that apes are the last common relatives of human beings today.

The genetic evidence was collected surrounding Darwin’s claims about the links between apes and the timeline of human evolution. This, in time, has allowed scientists to work out the exact level of similarity between the genetics of apes and humans, which sits around 94%.

Introduction to human evolution

The transition from apes to humans began with the ability to walk on two legs. This is called bipedalism. One of the earliest ancestors of human beings, whom we will explore more deeply later on in this wiki, was the Sahelanthropus tchadensis. The Sahelanthropus tchadensis began to transition into two-legged walking around 6 million years ago. Homo sapiens, the species that all humans currently belong to, did not come about for approximately 5 million years after this transition occurred. During this significant gap in the timeline of human evolution, many different species lived, evolved, and died. These species gradually changed over time, becoming more developed, more intelligent, and, overall, better suited to live in the world.

From what scientists have gathered, Homo sapiens is believed to have originated on the continent of Africa. Studies suggest that different groups of our human ancestors were scattered across Africa, all living separately from one another until the changing climate forced them to intermingle.

The timeline of human evolution

So, now we know what human evolution is, we can get into the details of the timeline of human development. It all began a long time ago, 55 million years ago, to be exact…

55 million years ago

The first-ever primitive primates begin to evolve.

8 to 6 million years ago

The first-ever gorillas evolve. After this, the different chimp and human lineages begin to separate.

5.8 million years ago

Bipedalism is introduced, as the oldest-known human ancestor is believed to have begun walking on two legs. This ancestor is the species, Orrorin tugenensis.

5.5 million years ago

The primate, Ardipithecus, has common traits with chimpanzees and gorillas. This species lives in forest areas.

4 million years ago

A species of primates known as Australopithecines pop up. These primates have similar-sized brains to chimpanzees but walk bipedally on two hind legs. The Australopithecines are the first human ancestors to have lived in Savannah.

3.2 million years ago

A group of skeleton fossils discovered in East Africa in 1974 shows a specimen of Australopithecus afarensis living in Hadar, Ethiopia. This specimen has since been given the nickname Lucy.

2.7 million years ago

The primate species Paranthropus lived in woods and grasslands at this time. These primates had massive jaws that they would use for eating roots and tough vegetation. Around 1.2 million years ago, this species became extinct.

2.5 million years ago

The species, Homo habilis, appears. This species shares many features with apes but has a less protruding face. During this time, hominids also began to use stone tools frequently, which they would make by splitting pebbles. Certain hominids also began to develop very meat-heavy diets at this point in the timeline of human evolution. This increase in meat consumption, and the consequent boost in energy that followed, allowed hominids to develop larger brains.

2 million years ago

Evidence of the primate Homo ergaster has been found in Africa dating back to this time. This primate had an increased brain volume than earlier species.

1.8 to 1.5million years ago

The species, Homo erectus, is found in Asia. These primates are the first examples we have of hunter-gatherers. They were also the first to migrate in large numbers outside of Africa. This species’s brain size is still bigger, at a volume of around 1000 cm3.

1.6 million years ago

This stage in history is believed to have marked the first use of fire, based on evidence found in Kenya. Also, more complex stone tools were being created and used then. These tools remained the most popular technology for early humans until around 100,000 years ago.

600,000 years ago

At this time, the species, Homo Heidelbergensis, lives in Africa and Europe. This primate species had a similar brain capacity to what we have today.

500,000 years ago

The earliest evidence of purpose-built shelters can be traced back to this time. The shelters were wooden huts that were found near Chichibu in Japan.

400,000 years ago

Early humans start using spears in their hunting.

325,000 years ago

The earliest evidence of human footprints can be traced back to 325,000 years ago. These footprints are believed to have been left by three people clambering down the slopes of a volcano in Italy.

280,000 years ago

The first complex stone blades and grinding stones are created.

230,000 years ago

It is at this point that Neanderthals begin to appear. They are found across Europe, all the way from Britain to Iran. They eventually became extinct when modern humans took over around 28,000 years ago.

195,000 years ago

This is the first time modern human beings as we know them, i.e., Homo sapiens, appear. Homo sapiens migrate across Asia and Europe. The earliest evidence of the remains of Homo sapiens date back to this period. The remains were two human skulls that were found in Ethiopia. At this time, the average brain capacity for Homo sapiens was 1350 cm3.

170,000 years ago

The direct ancestor of all modern human beings alive today is believed to have been living in Africa at this time. Scientists have called this ancestor Mitochondrial Eve.

150,000 years ago

Human beings develop the ability to speak. Evidence has shown that Homo sapiens developed a complex system of speech and symbolism at this time.

140,000 years ago

The first evidence of long-distance trade can be traced to 140,000 years ago.

50,000 years ago

It is at this point in the timeline of human evolution that human culture starts to develop at a much faster rate. Some cultural changes involved introducing ritually burying the dead, making clothes from animal skin, and creating more strategic, effective hunting techniques.

33,000 years ago

The earliest evidence of cave art can be traced to 33,000 years ago. Homo erectus became utterly extinct in Asia and was replaced by modern humans.

18,000 years ago

A species of tiny, archaic humans known as Homo Floresiensis live on the Indonesian island of Flores. These early humans are just over a meter tall and have similarly sized brains to chimpanzees. These humans, unlike chimpanzees, however, did have advanced stone tools.

12,000 years ago

Modern humans make it to the Americas.

10,000 years ago

Agriculture began to develop and quickly became a widespread practice. The rise in agriculture also links to the establishment of the first villages. It is also possible that dogs were first domesticated and kept as pets during this period.

5,500 years ago

The Stone Age comes to an end, and the Bronze Age begins. With the beginning of a new age, humans started to work in copper and tin instead of the stone tools they had used in previous years.

5,000 years ago

This period brings the earliest known example of writing.

4,000 to 3,500 years ago

The Ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia develop the world’s first-ever civilization.

Critical stages in the timeline of human evolution

There are seven essential stages of the history of human development. They are as follows:

1. Dryopithecus: Thought to be the ancestors of both humans and apes.
2. Ramapithecus: Lived primarily in open grasslands. They are officially classed as hominids.
3. Australopithecus: Lived on the ground, using stones as weapons, and walked bipedally.
4. Homo Erectus: Viewed as the species that linked humans and apes.
5. Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis: As the Homo Erectus developed into Homo sapiens, two subspecies of Homo sapiens came into existence. One of these species was Homo sapien, Neanderthal.
6. Homo Sapiens Sapiens: The other subspecies of Homo sapiens was Homo sapiens sapiens.
7. Homo sapiens: This is the species of all human beings living today.

What is an abstract noun?

An abstract noun names a quality or an idea that cannot be physically quantified with the senses. Instead, it symbolizes an abstract concept, such as a feeling, a quality, or an idea. In other words, abstract nouns are intangible concepts.

Examples of abstract nouns:

When helping children get to grips with abstract nouns, the key is to show them plenty of examples. This will show that plenty of abstract nouns are words they already know. It will also allow kids to draw parallels between different models, which will help them identify abstract nouns in the future.

Here are a couple of examples of abstract nouns that you and your kids might know already:

• Freedom;
• Danger;
• Charity;
• Justice;
• Generosity;
• Hope;
• Love.

We have an idea of what these words mean but cannot physically experience them with the five senses.

Identifying abstract nouns:

If you’re faced with a word and want to identify whether or not it’s an abstract noun, there are plenty of questions to ask yourself.

Is this a noun?

Firstly, you can check if the word is a noun. This means that it is a thing. Check if you can put a determiner in front of it – a word such as a/an, the, or these.

For example, the word dog is a noun, as you can say a dog, the dog, or these dogs. However, an adjective such as lovely won’t make sense with just a determiner in front of it – you can’t have a phase that looks like a lovely, the lovely, or these lovely.

Can I experience this noun with the five senses?

Once you’ve identified your noun, you can check whether it is abstract. As we know, you can’t experience an abstract noun with the five senses – you can’t see, hear, smell, taste, or touch it.

So taking our dog’s example, we know it’s not an abstract noun as we can see, smell, touch, and hear it.

But let’s look at another word, such as freedom. In this case, we can’t see, smell, hear, taste, or touch liberty. We can feel it in our hearts and minds and experience it – but not with our five tangible senses.

Abstract vs. concrete nouns:

The opposite of an abstract noun is called a concrete noun. This refers to any noun that is not abstract – in other words, we can see, hear, smell, taste, or touch it.

These can be experienced and include categories such as people, animals, materials, and foodstuffs.

Some examples of concrete nouns include:

• Dog;
• Chair;
• Moon;
• Table;
• Water;
• Book.

Is air an abstract noun?

While some nouns fit into their category of noun nicely, some are a little trickier to classify. For example, certain things include air, ghosts, or wind.

You might think that we can’t see these things – so they must be abstract nouns, right? While these are less obviously identified, they are still concrete. So the answer is no – air is not an abstract noun. We can feel it on our skin, and we experience the effect of it by breathing. The gases that make up the air have physical properties.