Teaching Strategies, Tactics, and Methods

What is a book report?

A book review is a written description, study, or presentation summarising and describing the reader’s reading experience.

How do you structure and plan your book report?

There are a few simple steps that can help you introduce writing clear and informative book reports to your children. These include:

1. Introduction: Every book report needs an attention-grabbing opening introduction. This paragraph should include all the critical information about the book, including the title, author, genre, and the year it was published. Children might also want to include a comment about why they picked up and read this particular story. For example, is it written by their favorite author or focuses on their favorite hobby or interest?
2. Summary: Now is the time to summarize some key events and features of the book. For example, where and when the story is set, the genre, tone, and who narrates the story. Once they have read this paragraph, the reader should have a clear book outline.

3. Character evaluation and details: The characters are significant features that make a book a great or terrible reading experience. At this stage of the book report, children can write a paragraph about the main characters in the book. This is an excellent opportunity for students to write about their favorite characters or characters they relate to most.
4. Plot event and theme details: The plot is the sequence of events that make up the story or book. The structure, also known as the narrative structure, is the overall layout of a story. The plot picks up on an intentional cause-and-effect relationship between a sequence of events in the narrative. Because the plot is such an important feature of any book, it is essential to writing a good report. Here, students might want to detail the major plot events of the book and discuss their favorite and least favorite moments. For example, what did they think of the ending? Were there any plot twists or events that surprised them?
5. Conclusion: Any good report needs a conclusion. This could be a whole paragraph or a couple of sentences; it is up to your writer! The concluding paragraph of a book report is where you summarize the ideas you’ve presented in the analysis and offer your opinion of the novel.

What are the different forms of a book report?

The different forms of book reports differ based on what they are discussing. However, you and your student will create three standard book reports: plot summaries, character analyses, and theme analysis reports. Read on to discover more about these three different formats.

Plot summary: The plot summary book report will focus on the narrative structure they have read. It is an opportunity for children to express an opinion of the book. For example, did they find the book scary or compelling? Funny or intriguing? You can analyze critical points in the story where the plot began, any plot twists, and how well the story concluded. This is also a fantastic opportunity to review and analyze your favorite passages and quotes.

Character analysis: The characters are often what bring a story to life. In a character analysis book report, you can describe and review your favorite or most minor favorite characters and their impact on the story. In this type of report, you can explore the physical and personality traits of characters and how their actions affect the plot of the book.

Theme analysis: Many stories and books we read when we are younger often have huge themes and moral lessons hidden between the lines. A theme analysis book report is an excellent opportunity for your students to explore their favorite themes in a book. Try bringing some of their thoughts and feelings as a reader into the report as a way to show how the theme impacts the story.

Define Auxiliaries: What are Auxiliary Verbs?

The definition of auxiliary verbs is verbs that form the tense, mood, and voice of other verbs. They are also known as ‘helping verbs.’ There are also primary auxiliary verbs. ‘Be ‘and ‘have’ are the primary auxiliaries. A primary auxiliary is used to construct compound tenses.

A simple definition of a verb is a word used to describe an action or occurrence.

The three most common auxiliary verbs are: ‘be, ‘have, do.’ Examples of each of these auxiliary verbs include:

• To Be: am, is, are, was, were, being, been, will be.
• To Have: has, have, had, having, will have.
• To Do: does, do, did, will do.

The modal verbs ‘can, can, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, and would’ are auxiliary verbs.

What are examples of auxiliary verbs?

1) ‘Be’ auxiliary verbs

‘Be’ can be an auxiliary or main verb in a sentence.

The ‘be’ auxiliary verbs are in bold in the examples below.

Used in a progressive sentence:

1. I am going to school.
2. She is playing basketball.
3. They have been learning about verbs.

Used in a passive sentence:

1. I was going to school.
2. She was playing basketball.
3. This lesson on verbs has been interesting.

2) ‘Have’ auxiliary verbs

‘Have’ is used to create the ‘present perfect tense’ and is always followed by the past participle.

‘Has’ is used to make it third-person singular.

‘Had’ is used to make a sentence past tense. It explains an action that started in the past but is still ongoing into the present, known as the ‘past perfect tense.’

Used in a perfect sentence:

1. I have been walking to school.
2. We have learned a lot today.
3. They had been the best students.

3) ‘Do’ auxiliary verbs

Auxiliary verbs can be used to make questions and negative statements.

‘Do’ and ‘does’ are frequently used to make questions and negatives.

‘Did’ is used to replace ‘do’ and ‘does’ to make a sentence past tense.

Examples of statements:

1. I do my schoolwork.
2. You do your schoolwork.
3. We do our schoolwork.
4. They do their schoolwork.
5. He/she does their schoolwork.

Examples of questions:

1. Do I want one?
2. Do you want one?
3. Do we want one?
4. Do they want one?
5. Does he/she want one?

What are the structural features of a newspaper?

The newspaper structure can be divided into four key sections: headline, byline, lead, body, and tail.

The inverted pyramid

Below is an example of this newspaper structure in the form of an inverted pyramid. This shape is commonly used when displaying a suggested format for a newspaper report. It starts with the essential information first, with each section containing less critical information as the pyramid progresses. This is not to say that the body of the text is not essential, but it could not exist without a lead, headline, or byline.

Below you will find each element of the inverted pyramid with information about how to write each component. You could print this out for your learners as a guide for their writing.

The Headline:

The headline grabs the reader’s attention while successfully summarising the article’s main point.

Key features of the headline:

• It needs to be short and snappy, which can sometimes mean missing out on non-essential words such as ‘the,’ ‘a’, or ‘to.’
• Headlines also need to be eye-catching, which can be achieved using humor, alliteration, or a pun.
• Write in the present tense even if the event has already happened. This will help to simplify your language choices.
• It should be written in the third person.

The Byline:

The byline is the easiest part of the entire article, as it does not require much creativity. It tells the reader who the article is by, their job role, and how to find more of their content.

The byline structure:

• Start your byline by inserting your full name after the word ‘by.’
• Add your specialty so that you may be a sports reporter, education reporter, or food writer, for example.
• Then detail how the reader can find more of your opinions or your work, so add a made-up social media name, such as @JoeBloggs.

An example byline:

• By Joe Bloggs
• Sports Reporter
• Social Media: @Joe.Bloggs

The Lead:

The lead could be considered an essential part of the newspaper structure. It should be one paragraph long; your audience should understand your article and what you report by reading it.

Key features of the lead paragraph:

• It needs to be short and snappy to portray the message. You can achieve this by communicating your message in as few words as possible- make sure it makes sense.
• The lead paragraph should explain clearly what has happened so that if your reader stops reading after the lead, they will understand the central message of your report.
• Stick to using the past tense.
• It should be written in the third person.

The Five Ws (and H)

Another way to ensure that your reader gets the critical messages in your report is to stick to the Five Ws in your lead paragraph. These include…

• Who: which people were mainly affected by the events you are reporting?
• What: are the key events that happened?
• Where: where did those events take place?
• Why: is there a specific reason why these events occurred?
• When: what was the time, day, month, and year (if necessary) the events happened?
• How: this isn’t strictly a word starting with the letter ‘w,’ but it is helpful for your lead paragraph. Explain how the events occurred or what made them able to happen.

The Body:

This is the main section of your newspaper article, so it will include lots of important information about what happened, along with more detail about what you said in your lead section. The body should be around 3-4 paragraphs long, depending on how much your teacher has instructed you to write.

Key features of the body:

• This is the chance for you to go into as much detail as possible about what happened.
• The most important information about the events should go first.
• Each paragraph should be on a slightly different aspect of what happened.
• It should be written in the third person.
• Explain the background information that is relevant to the story.
• Include evidence, facts, and quotes from people related to the event.
• You could also include a quote from an expert on the topic you are reporting on.

The Tail:

The tail includes the least essential information from your report and summarizes the events.

Key features of the tail:

• Add any extra or surrounding information about the event or related topics.
• Include links to find extra information about the topic or other news reports.
• You could also feature an expert or witness quote to summarize the story or imply what may unfold next.

The Newspaper Caption:

What is a newspaper caption?

They consist of a sentence describing the picture in the article and how it relates to its topic.

What is a newspaper cut-line?

This can be used underneath the newspaper caption describing what is in the picture. This is more literal and does not need to be stylized like the caption does.

Example newspaper structure

Headline:

Cat flies to the Moon

Byline:

By Joe Bloggs

Space Reporter

Twitter: @Joe.Bloggs

Lead:

At 10 am on Tuesday, 20th April, Molly the cat flew from Birmingham to the Moon. The event occurred after she grew wings after eating some gone-off cat food.

Body:

• Paragraph 1 – Explain how Molly managed to get to the Moon and what she did once she was there.
• Paragraph 2 – Introduce Molly in more detail and include opinions and quotes from Molly’s owner and an animal expert.
• Paragraph 3 – Explain how experts think the cat food resulted in Molly’s wing growth.
• Paragraph 4 – Explain how people are trying to help Molly get home to Birmingham on planet Earth.

Tail:

Include a quote from an expert talking about how other animals may be able to fly to the Moon in the future and link to websites containing information about space travel.

Newspaper structure checklist

Below you will find a checklist to go through once you have finished writing your newspaper article. First, use the newspaper structure above, and then use this checklist to double-check you have everything you need for a successful article.

1. A catchy and snappy headline.
2. Byline (name, specialism, social media contact).
3. Newspaper Name.
4. The lead paragraph contains the 5 Ws (and H).
5. The body of the text contains 3-4 paragraphs.
6. Details of the event.
7. Details about who the event affected.
8. Quotes from people involved and from experts.
9. Correct use of punctuation when introducing and closing quotes.
10. The use of a third person.
11. The tail includes extra information about the topic.

Why is understanding the newspaper structure important for children?

Understanding the form of a newspaper article is handy for children of many ages. It will help them to…

• include the critical newspaper features;
• explore the breadth of the story they’re writing about;
• understand that different text genres have various features;
• understand how to adapt their writing style for different genres, audiences, and purposes;
• explore the use of different vocabulary that’s suitable for the news article genre;
• more readily pick out the features of news writing when reading the news.

Why is it important for children to read the news?

By reading the news, your pupils will have the chance to…

• understand how different cultures work;
• learn about communities from around the world;
• learn about our systems and organizations;
• expand their vocabulary;
• understand that current affairs are appropriate for everyone, no matter what their interests are;
• understand that different types of texts are adapted for different audiences and purposes;
• learn the various language features of the news genre that can be used in their work.

A Word Bank (also called a vocabulary bank) is a list of key vocabulary words or phrases to support pupils’ writing. They may be subject-related or used for spelling.

What is a Word Bank?

Word banks (also called vocabulary banks) are visual teaching resources used to familiarise pupils with specific words. They’re most famous for use with KS1 and KS2 children.

As well as helping build a child’s vocabulary, word banks are valuable visual tools that can help to improve children’s spelling skills.

Although word banks can be short lists or glossaries, colorful and nicely designed vocabulary banks and word mats can make excellent display materials for the classroom.

Examples of Word Banks

Vocabulary banks are commonly used in English lessons to help children with their writing, but word banks are found in various subjects.

A word bank for Geography may include UK countries’ names. Therefore, it would consist of the following countries: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.

In English, a teacher may create a word bank of alternative words for ‘said’ to help students make more inventive word choices. This vocabulary bank may include: shouted, begged, argued, spat, snarled, simpered, murmured, crowed, and sang.

In Maths, a vocabulary bank may help children understand some of the longer terms associated with Mathematics. For instance: multiplication, division, subtraction, Pythagoras, algebra, geometry, probability, and variables.

How to use Word Banks to help you teach

Words banks can be a fantastic way to introduce your pupils to new vocabulary words and build their literacy skills.

You may encourage your class to create their word banks. Then, whenever they come across a new word or one they like, have them add it to a list in the back of their books. You can even challenge them to use some new vocabulary bank words in their writing.

The magic ‘e’ rule, sometimes known as the unspoken ‘e’ or the silent ‘e,’ is where the ‘e’ at the end of a word is silent but changes the way that the word is spoken or pronounced. This happens when ‘e’ is the second letter in a split digraph with another vowel sound, such as in the word ‘like.’

What is the magic ‘e’ rule?

The magic ‘e’ rule is something we use all the time when talking and communicating, often without us even realizing it. It’s where you have a silent ‘e’ at the end of a word that completely alters how that word is pronounced.

You’ll sometimes see them referred to as the “bossy e” since they tell the other vowels what to do. When the letter ‘e’ is at the end of a word, it’s usually silent and ‘tells’ the other vowel in the word to pronounce itself. So it goes to the end of a word to give power to the vowel, giving up its power and pronunciation.

Let’s look at the word ‘sham,’ for example. The ‘a’ in the word isn’t strongly pronounced. When we add a silent ‘e,’ the word becomes shame. The ‘a’ is now pronounced, but the ‘e’ is silent.

The fancy name for a magic ‘e’ word is a split digraph. This is when vowels split between consonants go together to make a sound. A digraph is any two letters that go together to make a sound. Some examples of digraphs include ‘sh,’ ‘ch,’ ‘th’, ‘ai,’ and ‘oa.’

What are the split digraphs?

There are five different split digraphs in the English language: a-e, e-e, i-e, o-e, and u-e. Children will most likely be introduced to these digraphs in year one as part of their phonics learning.

Remember that no matter which of these split digraphs appears in a word, the ‘e’ at the end will always be silent.

What are some examples of silent ‘e’ words?

To help us understand the magic ‘e’ rule, let’s take a look at some everyday examples of how it applies to different words:

• Amaze
• Gape
• Tube.
• Ape
• Kite.
• Globe.
• Late
• Hate
• Rope.
• Cube.
• Space.
• Gate

In all of these examples, the silent ‘e’ at the end of each word informs how we pronounce the vowels that come before it. For example, if we took the words ‘gape’ and ‘hate’ and removed the unspoken ‘e,’ we would end up with the words ‘hat’ and ‘gap.’ This lets us see how adding the silent ‘e’ sound causes the ‘a’ to become a long vowel sound.

When do we lose the unspoken ‘e’?

When adding a suffix that begins with a vowel to the end of a word, we remove the silent ‘e.’ For example:

Take+ the suffix ‘ing’ = Taking

Have+ the suffix ‘ing’ = Having

Make+ the suffix ‘ing’ = Making

However, if the suffix begins with a consonant, we keep the silent ‘e.’ For example:

Love + the suffix ‘ly’ = Lovely

Care+ the suffix ‘less’ = Careless

Arrange+ the suffix ‘meant’ = Arrangement

Why do we call it the bossy “e” and the magic “e”?

You’ll often see this rule called by these names because it helps make learning about it more fun and engaging for little ones. Because let’s be honest: while ‘split digraphs’ might be the correct terminology, it doesn’t make for a very compelling name!

Referring to split digraphs as ‘magic’ or ‘bossy’ allows teachers to develop a fun story or made-up anecdote to explain how it got its name. And what’s more, it also makes split digraphs easier for children to understand. For example, they’re able to see that as if by magic, the silent letter ‘e’ at the end of a word can turn a short ‘o’ into a long ‘o’ sound or a short ‘i’ into a long ‘i’ sound.

What is the brain?

The human brain is an organ that lives inside the skull. It is about the same size as your fists and weighs about 1.3kg. It is covered in wrinkles and protected by fluid inside the head. It’s sometimes nicknamed the ‘grey matter’ because it is grey.

You might not think about your brain often, but it’s pretty amazing when you think about it. The human brain is in charge of everything your body does – even the things you don’t think about, like breathing or keeping your heart pumping. It’s like a potent computer, storing memories and controlling our thoughts and bodies.

The brain is the signal box that receives information from the rest of your body. Every time you use any of your senses, all that information is transmitted to your brain, where it is processed. It is also where all of our thinking and feeling take place. For example, people sometimes talk about the heart as the place where our feelings happen – like when they talk about heartbreak – but actually, it all takes place inside the brain!

The brain explained for kids

The brain is part of the nervous system. Along with the spinal cord, it connects to all the nerves that travel throughout the body. So, for example, when you touch something hot or see something beautiful, that information travels through your body and into your brain. This helps us understand what is happening around us, informing us how to respond.

The brain also uses those nerves to tell our muscles what to do. This is how we move. Our brain sends the signals, our muscles receive them, and suddenly we walk, talk, or stretch.

The nervous system is made up of millions of neurons, which are microscopic cells. They can join together with other neurons to form connections called pathways that transmit information. These pathways can get stronger the more that they are used.

For example, learning how to ride a bike shows how neurons form pathways. The first time someone gets on a bike, they must think carefully about how they move. How do they pedal? How do they balance? It’s a lot of hard work. But after a lot of practice, it becomes much more manageable. Eventually, they don’t have to think about it all. That’s because the neurons have successfully formed a pathway that tells their body how to ride the bike without consciously thinking about it.

The brain also keeps working while we are asleep. It controls our dreams and sorts through everything we have learned and experienced that day to decide what is essential and what we can forget.

The brain keeps growing until we are about 20 years old. This doesn’t mean that we stop being able to learn new things, though! The neurons in the brain can keep forming pathways throughout our lives.

Doctors and scientists still don’t understand everything there is to know about the brain. This is partly because it is complicated and partly because it’s pretty tricky to experiment on something that keeps us alive and functioning. So the brain still has lots of secrets hidden inside it.

Main parts of the brain and their functions

Cerebrum

This is the most significant part of the brain. There are two halves of the cerebrum on each side of your head. It controls your voluntary muscles, which move when you want them to, giving you motor skills. For example, your cerebrum tells you how to proceed when playing sports or dancing.

It is also the home of your memory and logic. You have short-term memory, which helps you remember things that happened recently (like the name of someone you have just met), and long-term memory, which stores memories from long ago (like your tenth birthday party). The cerebrum also helps you with reasoning and making decisions.

Cerebellum

The cerebellum is much smaller than the cerebrum. It controls your muscles, movement, and coordination. Without it, you wouldn’t be able to stand upright, balance, or move.

It also helps us to learn how to do things with our bodies so that we no longer have to think about them. If you’ve learned how to ride a bike, your cerebellum stores all of the information so that each time you get on a bike isn’t like the first, shaky time. So it is an essential part of the brain!

Brain stem

The brain stem is also known as the medulla. It connects your brain to the spinal cord. It controls lots of involuntary muscles and processes. For example, the brain stem keeps your heart beating to move blood around your body. It also tells your stomach to digest your food to give you energy.

The brain stem also receives all of the information sent from nerves in the rest of the body. Then, it decides what to do with them. This is a big task – we have so much information whizzing around our bodies all the time that even a supercomputer couldn’t keep up with it.

How to keep your brain in shape

• Drink lots of water to keep your brain hydrated.
• Work out at the Brain Gym! This is a program of physical movements and exercises that help you to engage your brain. It can help to reduce stress and improve your ability to learn.
• Try mental workouts, too. Things like puzzles and reading are great for keeping your brain fit and strong. And you don’t even need to get off the sofa to get a great brain workout!

• Eat healthy foods. The brain needs lots of vitamins and minerals to function correctly. So fatty fish, like salmon, is delicious, like blueberries and broccoli. Maybe not all at the same time, though.
• Look after your head! Make sure to wear a helmet when you ride your bike or scooter. Hurting your head can also be bad for your brain, so keep it safe.
• Get plenty of sleep. Although your brain never entirely switches off, sleep gives your brain a chance to rest and remove toxins from your brain that have built up during the day. A lack of sleep can make you grumpy and distracted. It can also make you more likely to get sick because it affects how well your immune system works.

Fun facts about the brain for kids

• Your brain produces enough electricity to power a lightbulb. You might have seen cartoons where lightbulbs pop up above someone’s head to show that they have had an idea. Well, your brain could light up a lightbulb!
• The brain is 80% liquid. This is why we have to drink lots of water. If we get dehydrated, our brains don’t work as well.

• The brain is divided into two halves, called hemispheres. The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body and vice versa. So, for example, if you are left-handed, the right side of your brain is in charge.
• Every time you learn something new, your brain changes its structure. This is because the neurons form new pathways to make accessing and using new information faster and easier.
• Neurons are incredibly speedy – they transmit information to and from the brain at more than 240kmph. This is because sometimes our bodies need to react very quickly to situations. For example, if you touch something straight out of the oven, you will flinch before you have even thought about it. These speedy reflexes help to keep us safe.
• The brain uses around 20% of its energy from food and oxygen. So it needs a lot of power to do everything it needs to keep us going.
• Humans have the most significant brain-to-body ratio of all animals. This might be part of why we have been able to invent and create so many complicated things, like cars and rockets.

The Greek God of Love – Eros

Find out all about the infamous Greek God of Love in this teaching wiki; you will learn all about whom the Greek God of Love was, his symbols, how the Greek God of Love is still current today, and more!

Are you teaching children about Greek Gods and Goddesses? This teaching wiki about Eros, the Greek God of Love, can help you introduce the topic to your class!

The ancient Greeks had strict beliefs that guided them through life and helped them navigate the world. They believed in a multitude of Gods and Goddesses, and each one stood for a different purpose, and the ancient Greeks would also worship these other Gods and Goddesses for specific reasons.

The ancient Greek religion was based on the belief that 12 Gods and Goddesses ruled the human realm from Mount Olympus in Greece.

Who is the Greek God of Love in Greek Mythology?

Eros is the Greek God of Love in Greek Mythology; he is also known as Cupid in Roman Mythology and is depicted as a primordial deity who emerges self-born at the beginning of time and is said to be the fourth God to come into existence. He is the constant companion of Aphrodite, and some have speculated that Aphrodite is the mother of Eros.

To elaborate on this further in the Primordial myths, according to Hesiod, Eros, the God of Love, was born from Chaos and was witness to the beginning of the creation of the cosmos; Eros also blessed the union of Gaia and Uranus after this the universe was born.

In later sources, Eros is depicted as the son of Aphrodite and Ares. He is shown as a beautiful young man with mischievous wiles, running around with his bow and arrow and often leaving a trail of love and drama in his wake. The Greek God of Love embodied beauty, youth, and love!

Eventually, Eros was inevitably duplicated by writers and poets. You may know this duplication as Cupid, and he was used a lot in Roman literature. However, Eros reminded prominent in mythology.

In early literature and art, Eros was depicted as the mischievous but fiercely loyal child of Aphrodite. One of his most recognizable symbols is a bow and arrow, which he can be seen wielding in many early paintings. One of the most famous works of art of the God of Love is an ancient vase with a winged Eros playing the flute, either as a child or a young man.

The Symbols of Eros

Although his most famous symbol is the bow and arrow, Eros had many different symbols; here’s a handy list of them all!

• Bow and Arrow
• Flute or Lyre
• Hare
• Roses

Even today, Euros or the Roman depiction of Cupid is shown shooting arrows at lovers and throwing roses!

Eros in Mythology

Eros was widely known for playing matchmaker and playing with his subjects, as no one person was immune to his arrows. He would randomly fire his arrows, making men, heroes, and even Gods into a maddened love-drunk frenzy! Even though he was the God of Love, he used his powers to cause chaos amongst people and their passion!

One of the most famous stories in Greek mythology, including Eros, is the story of The Hero Jason. Euros willed princess Medea to fall in love with the hero named Jason to help him complete the quest of The Golden Fleece. The God of Love was asked to do this by the Goddess Hera, and this isn’t the only time Eros used his powers on a hero or mortal under the instruction of a God or Goddess.

Modern Day Eros

The God of Love re-emerged in the renaissance; he appears in many works of art, either depicted with Aphrodite or by himself. Then in the 18th Century, as Valentine’s Day grew in popularity, Eros, the Greek God of Love, became a holiday symbol. Images of Eros were on boxes of chocolates, cards, roses, and other Valentine’s Day gifts.

In today’s culture, Euros is portrayed very differently from the handsome, devious man that caused chaos amongst man and gods, like with his bow and arrow. Likewise, passion has very little to do with the revamped version of the God of Love; he is now depicted as a little cherub or winged baby related to romantic love rather than passion and desire.

Who are the seven Gods of Love?

It might surprise you that in Greek mythology, there are numerous Gods and Goddesses of love! Here’s a comprehensive list of them and which parts of love they have power over!

• Eros – God of Love and Desire.
• Erotes – God of Love and Fertility.
• Pothos – God of Passion.
• Imeros – God of Intense Desire.
• Anteros – God of Reciprocal Love.
• Hymenaios – God of Marriage.
• Aphrodite – Goddess of Beauty and Lust.

Most of these Gods are lesser known, with Eros and Aphrodite being the most popular in Greek mythology. Still, Erotes, the God of Love and Fertility, and Anteros, the God of Reciprocal Love, are the twin brothers of Eros!

Other stories of Eros

Eros and Psyche – Psyche was a beautiful mortal princess; her beauty was so mesmerizing that it caught the attention of everyone, including Aphrodite. The Goddess grew jealous of Psyche and her many suitors and, in a jealous rage, commanded Eros to make her fall in love with the ugliest man in the world. While following his orders, the arrow grazed his skin; Eros was not immune to the power of his arrows, this made him fall madly in love with the princess, and every day he would visit her in secret, never revealing his true identity. Eros told Psyche she could never look him in the eye, but egged on by her jealous sister, Psyche eventually did. In doing so, Eros felt betrayed by her and left, never to return, leaving the princess heartbroken.

Eros and Apollo – Apollo was a Greek god and an excellent archer; he bullied and mocked Eros for being small in stature and for his arrows. He boasted and regaled tall tales of how his arrows shot down his enemies precisely, while Eros shot his haphazardly and aimed at anyone. Unfortunately for Apollo, the God of Love wasn’t going to take these insults, so he shot one of his arrows at Apollo, which meant he would fall in love with the first person he laid eyes on. So Apollo falls in love with the Nymph Daphne, and as if to add insult to injury, Eros then shoots Daphne with a lead arrow to make her immune to Apollo’s advances; she, therefore, rejects Apollo, breaking his heart.

Euros and The Constellation Pisces – Aside from Eros’ love stories, the Greek God of Love also appears in mythology under the zodiac sign of Pisces. It was said that a revolt against Zeus occurred when Typhon, The Giant, and Echidna decided to storm Mount Olympus. The monstrous form of Typhon The Giant caused the Gods to flee in terror. Most of whom escaped to the safety of Egypt. Over in Syria, it was here that Eros and Aphrodite encountered the advancing Typhon. There was no time to flee like the other Gods, so Eros and Aphrodite transformed into two fish to ensure their safety. They dove deep into the Euphrates River and swam to safety. Later, these two fish were immortalized in the heavens as the zodiac sign Pisces. After this, the Syrians stopped eating and catching fish, fearing potentially catching and killing the Gods. Even today, beautiful Greek works of art depict either Eros or Aphrodite riding on a fish.

Here is a lovely Roman poem about the tale of Pisces!

Ovid, Fasti 2. 458 ff (trans.Boyle) (Roman poetry C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) – “Pisces, heaven’s horses. They say that you and your brother, for your stars gleam together, ferried two gods on your backs. Once Dione, in flight from terrible Typhon, reached the Euphrates with tiny Cupidos in tow and sat by the hem of Palestine’s stream. Poplars and reeds dominated the tops of the banks; willows, too, offered hope of concealment. While she hid, the wood roared with the wind. She pales with fear and believes a hostile band is approaching. As she clutched her son to her breast, she cried: ‘To the rescue, Nymphae, and bring help to two divinities.’ No delay; she leaped. Twin fish went underneath them, for which, you see, the present stars are named. Hence timid Syrians think it wrong to serve up this species; they defile no mouths with fish.’”

Symmetry meaning in maths

Something is symmetrical when it has two matching halves. You can check for symmetry in shape by drawing a mirror line down the middle and seeing if both halves are identical.

In other words, symmetry exists when something with matching parts faces each other or around an axis.

But what makes a shape symmetrical? Put, symmetrical (or symmetric) shapes have one side that is the same as the other. Symmetrical shapes look the same after being reflected, rotated, or translated.

Lines of symmetry meaning

A line of symmetry splits a shape in half, creating two identical shapes. When drawing this line, you need to find the exact middle of a shape or figure.

Above are two examples of symmetrical shapes and their lines of symmetry. It’s also important to note that some shapes can have multiple lines of symmetry. Take a square, for example – you can draw four lines of symmetry on a square—one horizontally across the middle, one vertically down the middle, and two going diagonally each way.

A line of symmetry can also be called a ‘mirror line’ as a mirror can be placed along it, and the reflection would show the entire shape. Small mirrors can be handy in the classroom to help children understand the meaning of symmetry and how it works.

Different types of symmetry: meaning

Now that we’ve established reflectional (or line) symmetry let’s look at the other main ways a shape or pattern can be deemed symmetrical. While students may not learn about these until high school, it’s worth knowing the basics of these other forms of symmetry in maths.

What are the four types of symmetry?

The four types of symmetry are rotational, translational, reflection, and glide reflection.

Rotational symmetry

They are also known as radial symmetry. A shape or pattern has rotational symmetry when it looks the same after being rotated less than one complete turn. We count rotational symmetry by the number of turns it takes for a shape to look the same. This is called the ‘order’ of rotational symmetry. For example, a rectangle has an order of 2, and a five-point star has an order of 5.

Translational symmetry

Translational symmetry in maths is slightly more complex and is only introduced in high school. For an object to have translational symmetry, it needs to have been translated or cloned and moved in a specific direction and at a certain distance away. There must be more than one of a particular pattern or object for it to have translational symmetry, which is why it’s often helpful to think of a repeated pattern as an example of translational symmetry.

If you had a border of small square shapes across the top of a wall in your home, you’d want these to be repeated at the same distance. This would be an example of translational symmetry.

Glide reflection symmetry

Glide reflection symmetry is best described as a hybrid between reflection and translational symmetry. It involves both processes, but in a specific order; review over a line and translation along the line. A shape must first be reflected and then translated in any direction for glide reflection to have taken place.

When was the camera invented? — Before the camera

Before any camera technology was invented, we created images in many different ways. Our ancestors left behind paintings on the walls of caves. They painted pictures of themselves, animals, plants, and more. Other ancient civilizations painted or drew on tablets or papyrus. They created sculptures by carving them into rock or wood. These art forms remain popular even today, though we use paper, canvas, or even digital devices like tablets for drawing and painting. However, the first camera-like device was invented shortly before Anno Domini began. It was called the camera obscura.

When was the camera obscura invented?

The camera obscura dates back to the 5^th century BC. It was made up of darkened rooms or enclosed boxes with a tiny opening on one wall or side. When light passed through this small hole, it projected a blurry image of the outside world onto a screen or wall. ‘Camera obscura’ translates to ‘dark chamber’. Ancient philosophers like Aristotle noted this process.

But when was the camera obscura invented, exactly? Unfortunately, there are no records of its invention. The first complete account of how it worked comes from the 11^th century, many centuries after its use was first noted.

The camera obscura was used throughout the Middles Ages and even the Renaissance. Inventors embellished the invention by adding biconvex lenses in the second half of the 16^th century. These lenses allowed the images projected by the camera obscura to be brightened. Once particular use of the camera obscura was its ability to enable the viewer to see the solar eclipses without hurting their eyes. This proved helpful for astronomers. The camera obscura was also used by artists as an aid for drawing and painting. The projected image could be traced, which helped artists with their graphical perspective in the artwork of landscapes or similar.

Developments of the camera obscura technology meant that the camera obscura became closer and closer to what we think of as a ‘camera’ today.

But when was the first proper camera invented? Well, many inventors managed to ‘capture’ images in one way or another. For example, Johann Heinrich Schulze captured an image of cut-out letters on a bottle of a light-sensitive slurry in 1717. He had discovered that silver salts darkened when exposed to light. However, this was not durable.

Thomas Wedgwood, the son of famous potter and entrepreneur Josiah Wedgwood, conducted many early photography experiments. He is the first to have considered creating permanent photographs; however, his attempts were largely unsuccessful. He created ‘photograms,’ but these were not light-fast (resistant to light).

When was the camera invented? — The first camera

In 1826, Joseph Nicéphore Niépce was the first to capture an image with a camera permanently.

He used a camera obscura and a pewter plate. This pewter plate was coated with a light-sensitive material called Bitumen of Judea to capture and ‘fix’ the image. However, this process took at least eight hours of exposure, and the picture he created was unclear or refined.

Niépce’s associate, Louis Daguerre, was inspired by his findings. The daguerreotype only needed minutes of camera exposure. This was a drastic improvement over Niépce’s method. Daguerre’s invention also produced much clearer and more detailed results. The details of this method were announced to the world in 1839. This is the year typically accepted as the birth year of practical photography.

Photography Facts

What was the first photograph of?

The first photograph taken by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce was of the view from a window of his family’s home. This view was of the courtyard. The image is titled ‘View from the Window at Le Gras.’

What was the first photograph taken in color?

In 1861, James Clerk Maxwell produced the first color photograph. He captured an image of some tartan ribbon. His technique involved photographing the ribbon through red, yellow, and blue filters, then combining those separate images.

In 1907, the French Lumière brothers began to market their ‘Autochrome’ invention. They could produce vivid colors in their images using dyed potato starch. This technique remained the most popular color film technique until Kodachrome film came along in 1935.

When was the camera invented? — Other advancements in camera technology

In the 1830s, the British inventor William Henry Fox Talbot showed off his photographic process called the ‘Calotype.’ This method used high-quality photosensitive paper instead of metal sheets like the daguerreotype. When exposed to light, the paper produced a hidden image that could be developed and preserved when rinsed with hyposulphite. The results were a bit fuzzier than daguerreotypes, but they were much easier to reproduce. In addition, with the Calotype, infinite copies could be made with just one negative.

However, Daguerreotypes and Calotypes became obsolete in 1851.

Frederick Scott Archer had come up with a brand new photographic method that combined considerably improved image quality with negatives that could be easily copied. Archer had discovered that a chemical called collodion, usually used in the medical field, could create ‘wet plates’ made of glass. These wet plates had an exposure time of mere seconds. This process was cheap and produced great images. However, setting up the plates was more complex and meant that photographers needed to transport portable darkroom tents or wagons around with them if they wanted to take pictures outside of their homes or studio. Despite this drawback, the wet-collodion process was incredibly successful.

However, early to mid-19^th-century photography was limited because photographers needed a good understanding of chemistry to take photographs. This changed when Robert L. Maddox invented his ‘dry plates.’ Preserved silver salts were encased in gelatin. These dry plates retained light-sensitivity for a good while, which meant that they could be pre-packaged and, therefore, mass-produced and sold to excited customers. No more prepping wet plates and lugging around portable dark rooms! Also, because dry plates allowed for much quicker exposures, they could capture moving objects better than ever.

However, it wouldn’t until around 1885 that photography became accessible to hobbyists. The invention that allowed this was camera film. George Eastman invented film on rolls and began producing it to be bought by anyone who could afford the camera. The film was much lighter and easier to transport than any previous option. In addition, as it was stored on a roll, multiple photos could be taken quickly. This helped sell the first Kodak camera, another of Eastman’s inventions. However, customers could not take out the film and take it to be developed.

At first, the camera could take 100 pictures and then need to be sent back to the manufacturer to develop the images. The camera would then be reset and ready to take 100 photographs. These cameras were convenient and easy to use, but the photos were low-quality. Celluloid was invented not long after this camera came out, and that changed the game entirely. Film quality improved significantly, and celluloid film remained all the rage until digital cameras broke onto the scene.

When were digital cameras invented?

The first digital camera was invented in 1975. Its creator was Steve Sasson, an engineer at Kodak. This camera took 0.01-megapixel images. For comparison, many modern mobile phones have a camera that takes pictures of 12 megapixels or more!

The first digital camera could only take black-and-white photos. Time was an issue too. It took 23 seconds to take a single image. However, in 1991, Nikon released the Nikon F3; this was the first digital camera that could be bought easily by the public. However, it was a bit ahead of its time and was not immediately popular. By 1995, sales of consumer digital cameras began to increase drastically. In 1997, the first image taken by a camera phone was sent to over 2000 people. Soon after, many mobile phone manufacturers would design their camera phones. Of course, nowadays, almost every mobile phone has at least one camera. Some have two or three, even!

Phonetic Spelling

What is phonetic spelling, and how can you teach pupils to spell phonetic words? Learn all about phonetic spelling, how to spell phonetic words and how it can be very beneficial for children when learning to spell long and tricky words!

What is Phonetic Spelling?

Phonetic spelling is a clever way to help young kids spell longer and more complex words. The technique involves sounds of letters and uses each letter to represent a single spoken sound to help children spell them.

Some words are spelled exactly how they’re sounded out. For example, the letter ‘T’ uses one sound. So when you say the word tree, you can hear the letter ‘T’ sound, creating an unmistakable sound.

However, things get a little tricky when the ‘T’ is paired with other letters, such as ‘th’ words, as it loses the simple sound and creates a new sound. The new sound ‘th’ words create doesn’t create a singular sound, and in certain words such as thin and this, the single letter of ‘T’ doesn’t correlate to one sound, making it a little trickier to spell.

Phonemes vs. graphemes               

A phoneme is simply the smallest unit of sound within a word. On the other hand, a grapheme is any given letter or combination of letters representing a phoneme. Phonemes and graphemes play a crucial role in phonetic spelling, as they are all about the sound of words.

Some languages follow a system known as phonemic orthography. This is where the graphemes, i.e., the written symbols, correspond precisely to the language’s phonemes, i.e., the spoken sounds. English, as a language, is not overly phonetically consistent. The most phonetically consistent languages across the board are Russian, Korean, and Arabic. In these languages, the pronunciation between written and spoken speech is not much changed. This type of language is often seen as a more straightforward way of spelling and pronunciation.

Who Uses Phonetic Spelling and Why is it Useful?

Phonetic spelling can be helpful for a wide range of people, including the kids in your class! When kids are just starting with spelling, everything can seem quite overwhelming, and the idea that there are some spelling rules but many exceptions to them can seem like too much to take on. This is where phonetic spelling comes in, as it simplifies everything by getting kids to match each sound in a word with a letter they think makes the same sound. This will not always result in kids spelling words correctly, but it will get them on the right track. For instance, a child may initially spell a word like ‘tell’ as ‘tel’, based on their method of matching the sounds with letters that represent them. This phase in children’s education will help them learn how to read and spell correctly.

The technique is also good if children have a tricky name to spell, as it allows them to break it down. For example, if we’re presented with the name Raul, you would sound it like Rah-OOL, with a heavy pronunciation of the ‘ool’ sound, so they understand how it’s pronounced. Or the name, Sophia, would be pronounced so-FEE-uh. This is a great way to make sure children pronounce names correctly; you could even try this for fun with your child’s name as a warm-up exercise.

Switching things up

Several people have tried to change how we spell using the English language over time. One of the people who had notable success in this was Noah Webster, whose name you may recognize from a particular famous dictionary. Webster suggested that a small number of new standardized spellings be implemented for certain words. His suggestions are still in use in American and British English today. For example, Webster suggested that the letter ‘c’ be changed to ‘s’ in some words like offense and defense. He also proposed that the letter ‘k’ be taken off words like musick. Not all of Webster’s suggested changes were implemented, but those shaped entirely how we spell today!

What are Phonetic Words?

Phonetic describes the way that spoken words sound. To sound out an unfamiliar word, you break it into its phonetic parts, saying each in the order in which it appears.

Spelling Phonetic Words: consonants and vowels

Here is a list of consonants and vowels, their phonetic sounds, and examples. You could use this table when helping children learn how to spell these different words by pronouncing the sounds slowly and clearly.

Examples of phonetic words with different consonant sounds:

Sound/letter:	Example:
b	but, bad.
ch	cheese, cheek or nature – spelt with a t, but makes the same sound.
d	do, dog.
f	fur, food, enough- ‘gh’ sounds like ‘f.’
g	go, bug.
h	hop, ahead.
l	leg, letter.
m	man, mom.
n	no, tin – ‘n’ sound is at the end.
ng	ring, sing.
p	pen, tip – ‘p’ sound is at the end.
r	run, far – ‘r’ sound is heard at the end when pronounced.
s/ss	see, pass.
sh	she, emotion – spelt differently but when pronounced the ‘sh’ sound is heard.
t	twig, bet – heard at the end when pronounced.
th	the, teeth.
v	visit, have.
w	We
wh	whisper, what

Examples of phonetic words with different vowel sounds:

Sound/letter:	Example:
a	cat, hat.
air	square – spelt differently, but when pronounced, sounds like ‘air’.
ar	party, start.
ay	stay, sway.
ai	pain, chain.
er	letter, burger
ee	fleece, beep.
i	kit, lit.
o	lot, toast.
oe	shoe, poem.
oo	food, boot.
ou	out, count.
ow	mouth – even though it’s spelt differently, you can still hear the ‘ow’ sound.
u	gum, bun.

As shown above, words sometimes sound out different letters to how they’re spelled; this is when things get tricky. If a child struggles with a particular set of words, try noting them down and going over them more than others until they master them.