education

Matthew Lynch published in Education Leadership, Teachers

What is the Importance of a Personal Learning Network?

As discussed in a previous post, a personal learning network (PLN) is a customized social media platform for educators. But instead of sharing pictures, status updates, and liking each other’s filtered profile pictures, educators can learn from people and resources around the globe to improve their teaching methods, stay up-to-date on the latest edtech trends, and receive endless outside support.

Today we’re listing a few key reasons why you should invest in a personal learning network, for the good of yourself and the students you’re responsible for.

So, why PLNs?

Control Everything

No one knows which areas you struggle with as an educator more than you do. Nothing can tell you exactly what’s going on inside your classroom aside from the memories you relive every day. So, it’s your job to seek out a select number of experts and fellow teachers who specialize in or have experienced the same difficulties.

The great thing about a PLN is that it doesn’t limit you. Combine in-person and online resources, wade through several websites, speak with educators and tech professionals and cognitive psychologists. Chat online or skype or meet for coffee. The resources are endless and there are endless ways to customize your experience.

A lot of educators shape their PLNs with a question. How does the classroom adapt to a tech-driven world? How can we personalize education for every student? How do we keep girls interested in STEM courses?

A PLN means people from all around the world with a variety of different specialties are collaborating to answer one question. With that equation, it’s almost impossible for a solution not to arise. If you’re experiencing a problem, the PLN you build is your personalized team combining their knowledge to help solve that particular issue.

A solution to your educational struggle is on the horizon.

Get Challenged

A PLN is not necessarily a group of like-minded individuals. If that were the case, you wouldn’t be seeking out other opinions in the first place because it’s likely you already have a group of people in your life who feel and think exactly the same way as you.

PLNs provide you with people who have different viewpoints on hot topic issues and, if they’ve been vetted beforehand, have a wealth of knowledge, credentials, and research to back up their arguments.

As educators, sometimes we haven’t fixed the problem because we keep using the same method to solve it. A student is struggling with math and we send them to the same tutor, or explain it the same way, or use the same software. Sometimes we need someone to come in and point us in the opposite direction before a solution is found.

Get Out of Your Own Head

In the same vein, the solution to our problem is often right in front of us. We just need someone with fresh eyes to stand before us and point it out.

How do you know you’re in the dark about the latest edtech tool if you’ve never heard of the software to begin with?

If your lesson strategy feels stale or something isn’t clicking between you and your students, get out of your rut and ask the outside community for advice. It’s guaranteed that someone in the education community has experienced the same problem and found a solution they’re desperate to share.

Share What You Know

PLNs aren’t just about taking, they’re about giving back to your network by sharing your own knowledge, ideas, and reflections.

If you have a groundbreaking idea about preparing your classroom for a tech-centered, universally connected world, share it with others and receive feedback, research partners, and ways to develop and execute the concept.

Your unique ideas help others in the education community grow, and if you’re in the development stage, having a sounding board to bounce ideas off of is invaluable to the growth of any project. 

Find a Support System

Being a teacher is an emotionally grueling job that people outside of the education world can’t always understand.

Having an online or in-person group of teachers to share stories with helps you cope with and release emotions building within. Is your classroom underfunded? Vent to fellow teachers sharing the same struggle. Are you feeling exhausted by your profession rather than inspired? Talk it through with educators who’ve been exactly where you’ve been.

Don’t just think of PLNs as a professional resource; think of it as a form of virtual therapy. 

Support Your Students

Don’t limit the kids in your classroom to your own educational preferences and methods of teaching. Interacting with other educators allows you to bring different opinions and ideas directly to your students, so they can also be exposed to a variety of opinions and new ways of thinking.

Education is moving away from the institution and towards the individual. Presenting students with other resources helps them personalize their own educational experience.

In short,

Every website, journal, Twitter feed, and individual person is a resource. With an infinite number of resources in the universe, now widely available through social platforms and internet access, you have the power to hand-pick which ones will contribute to your personal and professional growth.

Create your own personal learning network, if not for yourself, for the people you make daily decisions for – your students.

 

 

 

 

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Matthew Lynch published in Education Leadership, Teachers, Trending Topics

The A-Z of Education: Education Law

In this series, I hope to guide you in acquiring the vocabulary that you need to know to be considered a competent education professional. In this article, we will discuss education vocabulary centered on education law.

Click here to view all of the articles in the series.

Code of Ethics refers to an individual’s chosen ethical behavior guidelines, providing direction in the daily activities of his or her chosen profession. This code of ethics assists an individual to make self-satisfactory decisions quickly.

Corporal Punishment is a form of discipline where physical pain is deliberately inflicted to punish, reform, and/or deter unacceptable attitudes or behaviors.

Due Process, in education, refers to laws pertaining specifically to education and mean that fairness should be rendered in all arenas and that teachers’ rights or students’ rights, as individuals, should under no circumstances be violated.

“Free Exercise” Clause is a clause in the U.S. Constitution that reads: “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.”

Liability is the state of being legally obliged and responsible to perform certain actions, whether instructed to or not by an official of a judiciary court.

Procedural Due Process Rights includes the appropriation of specific legal procedures to ensure fair treatment of students.

Religious Freedom is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or religious belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance; the concept is generally recognized also to include the freedom to change religion or to follow any religion.

Sexual Harassment, in the context of the school environment, involves unwelcome sexual advances, including sexual remarks, and harassment that is sexual in nature.

Substantive Due Process Rights means that any restrictions imposed on student’s rights must be demonstrated by a valid reason.

Tort Laws are bodies of rights, obligations, and actions applied by courts in civil proceedings during which individuals are found to have been victims of the wrongful actions of others.

Are there any terms that we missed?

 

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Matthew Lynch published in Policy & Reform, Trending Topics

Pass or Fail: Is Testing a Valid Way to Measure Student Progress?

In this multi-part series, I provide a dissection of the phenomenon of retention and social promotion. Also, I describe the many different methods that would improve student instruction in classrooms and eliminate the need for retention and social promotion if combined effectively.

While reading this series, periodically ask yourself this question: Why are educators, parents and the American public complicit in a practice that does demonstrable harm to children and the competitive future of the country?

What if the measures we use to determine passing or failing grades are completely skewed? Is standardized testing, or any testing for that matter, the right way to determine student progress?

For obvious reasons, one of the first and most significant concerns for the application of standardized tests is that they are not consistent with the standards for fair and appropriate testing. Of course, educators must first define the standards themselves, and demonstrate them to be relevant. In this instance, we are referring to the standards for fair and appropriate testing as defined by the NRC Report, which says that measurement validity refers to the extent to which evidence supports a proposed interpretation and use of test scores for a particular purpose.

For instance, a measurement validity of the reading section of the SAT I standard test would be assessed to have a reasonable validity for assessment of an individual’s reading comprehension skills, knowledge of grammar rules, and ability to make inferences from texts. The use of scores from this test to determine an individual’s preparedness for entry into a particular college program would also be reasonably good. The component of appropriate testing usually overlaps with this second issue of validity, too, which the NRC Report Standards also outlines, and which is backed up by the findings of various other organizations.

To go back to the more formal parameters, the general rule is that the internal structure of the test, the content of the test, the relationship of the test to other criteria, and the psychological processes and cognitive operations used by the examinee in responding to the test items must all support the purpose of the test.

A test assessing knowledge and skill should target the knowledge and skills specifically; looking, as well, to ensure that the knowledge and skills being assessed are those that have been obtained from appropriate instruction. In some instances, knowledge might depend on poor instruction or on factors that are unrelated to the skills under review. For instance, a student might score poorly on the SAT reading test because their teachers didn’t transfer the necessary knowledge and skill (the students may not have received the targeted knowledge of proper grammar, for instance, or they have received inadequate instruction on how to read critically).

Another example would be that an individual might score badly on the SAT reading test not because they lack reading comprehension skills that the test intends to assess but because they have significant language barriers or because there are cultural differences that have some bearing on the test. For instance, a passage in American history that is being read for comprehension but that in some way relies upon presupposed knowledge of American history or customs might be problematic and undermine the validity and fairness of tests scores, undermining the attribution of cause.

Disabilities can also factor as an issue for the attribution of cause. Several types of cognitive or even physical disabilities can undermine an individual’s performance in a testing scenario without appropriate interventions provided to support the student’s exceptionalities.

In the context of K-12 assessments, the cause component also influences the extent to which students receive adequate opportunity to learn the material for the test. Adequate quality and quantity of instruction become important, as does the alignment of test content and curriculum.

Students need adequate opportunity within the testing scenarios to demonstrate their knowledge. If tests contain irrelevant language or content, for instance, students may not have adequate opportunity to perform and test developers will have compromised the fairness and relevance of the test.

Furthermore, many of the criteria for fairness in testing standards overlap with attribution of cause. In the Standards, overlapping elements include the investigation of bias and differential item functioning, determining whether construct-irrelevant variance differentially affects different groups of examinees, and equal treatment during the testing process.

Circular validity lies within the cause component in the sense that it relates to the alignment between test content and the curriculum taught in class. Chapter 13 of the Standards determines that “There should be evidence that the test adequately covers only the specific or generalized content and skills that students have had an opportunity to learn.”

This goes beyond the criteria outlined here and applies to a broader interpretation of opportunity to learn; one that is not restricted to curricular validity but also inclusive of the consideration of instructional quality as a predictor of student test scores.

Certain polices within the K-12 setting make high-stakes student decisions dependent upon evidence that the student has the educational experience and opportunity to acquire relevant knowledge and skill. Where students have lacked sufficient opportunity to acquire desired skills in an educational context, they may not meet the criteria for grade promotion or graduation.

At the same time, though, it is hardly fair that the student be held accountable for the deficit in their learning. At what point do we say: this portion of education is the responsibility of the schools, of the system and the stakeholders, not just the individual student?

The effectiveness of treatment is the final component of the fair and appropriate test criteria, relating to whether test scores lead to consequences that are educationally beneficial in a given context. Consequences could include placement in a particular academic grouping based on ability or advancement from one level of learning to a higher level based on test achievement. Accountability plays a part here, too, as the criteria for effective treatment determines that it is inappropriate to use tests to make placements that are not educationally beneficial.

When tests are used in placement decisions, they must be fair and appropriate. Students must be “better off in the setting in which they are placed than they would be in a different available setting.” With all of these factors in mind, though, can testing ever truly be trusted as a placement option for students?

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Matthew Lynch published in Ask An Expert, Trending Topics

The A-Z of Education: Curriculum and Instruction

In this series, I hope to guide you in acquiring the vocabulary that you need to know to be considered a competent education professional. In this article, we will discuss education vocabulary centered on curriculum and instruction.

Click here to view all of the articles in this series.

Convergent Questions allow students a chance to provide simple, single answer to questions, which can even be narrowed down to yes or no responses.

Curriculum refers to a predetermined set of courses, as well as the course content, that is offered at an educational institution.

Curriculum Mapping describes the process through which schools detect gaps in learning between curricula, by analyzing a database where teachers enter course planning, content, skills, and assessment information. Any gaps detected are managed appropriately to ensure that the standard of learning provided at the institution meets district or state requirements.

Differentiated Instruction refers to the concept that defines the fact that students learn differently and have to receive instruction according to those differences.

Direct Teaching Methods refer to instances where the teacher is primarily regarded as the provider of information. The teacher is in full control of the pace, content, and structure of the lesson at all times, and students are required to follow.

Divergent Questions are questions that could have more than one answer. These require students to analyze responses before selecting.

Indirect Teaching Methods refer to instances where students take the primary responsibility and the teacher acts as a facilitator. The students are responsible for the direction and pace of their learning, as well as the content to variable degrees.

Integrated Teaching Methods combine direct and indirect teaching methods. The teacher begins with an instructive session and gradually engages the students to take the lead.

Learning Style refers to the various methods by which students are able to learn information presented to them, and which style suits them best.

Pedagogical Content refers to what binds subject knowledge with pedagogy. Pedagogical content knowledge might be viewed as a profound understanding, interpretation, and adaptation of the curriculum, which may only be achieved by a profound knowledge of the subject, the curriculum, and the students. It refers to the way that the teachers organize the topics and choose the clearest analogies and metaphors in order to leave an impact on their students.

Standardized System is an education system that has the same characteristics for all individuals and all institutions.

Student-Centered Curriculum refers to a non-authoritative, participation-focused model that reflects the necessity of a focus on both learners and learning.

Subject-Centered Curriculum is divided into strict subject areas, where there is little flexibility for cross-curricula activity. Subjects are taught in isolation, and there is an emphasis on acquisition and memorization of information and knowledge regarding each specific content area.

Theories-in-Use are theories that we take for truths, often without consciously analyzing, evaluating, or questioning them in any way.

Are there any terms that I missed?

 

 

 

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Matthew Lynch published in Policy & Reform, Retention & Social Promotion Series, Trending Topics

Pass or Fail: Alternative Strategy Factors to the Pass/Fail System

In this multi-part series, I provide a dissection of the phenomenon of retention and social promotion. Also, I describe the many different methods that would improve student instruction in classrooms and eliminate the need for retention and social promotion if combined effectively.

While reading this series, periodically ask yourself this question: Why are educators, parents and the American public complicit in a practice that does demonstrable harm to children and the competitive future of the country?

If previous efforts and employing one or another of the existing alternative strategies have not been effective, we’re left with this question: what can educators do to develop alternatives to retention and social promotion that will actually work?

Several key points emerge from the existing body of research. First and foremost, research shows that alternatives to grading, retention, and social promotion must represent a multi-stage process that has been carefully planned and tested. While this might seem obvious, especially the requirement that a strategy is carefully planned, we should remember the context in which retention and social promotion occurs, a context that includes significant historical dimensions.

Indeed, one need look no further than the Common Core Standards and one of the major complaints about them: that they are woefully under-tested and embody goals and that have little to do with the real educational needs of individual students.

A second key to developing an effective alternative is the identification of those factors that are most crucial to a successful education policy. What do we need to consider when choosing among alternative strategies? What does the research tell us about the most important elements to a strategy that would replace grading, retention, and social promotion?

Most studies of the effects of grade retention and social promotion are limited in one way or another. The statistical power of many such studies is limited by a small sample size. Even the larger studies are often hampered by inconsistencies in education policy or implementation that make it difficult to interpret the results.

Logic also plays a role in showing the problems with grade retention and social promotion, as well as in determining the basic elements of alternative education strategies for failing students. One of the first points to be addressed from the perspective of logic and common sense is the basis for assigning specific grades to student assignments. We should not only consider the grading process itself but, to gain a wider perspective, we should also consider the ultimate objective of the education system, as well as how we can determine whether that objective is being achieved.

Consider the individual that America’s public education system should be producing. What should that individual be prepared for? Why are they getting an education in the first place? And, as we have suggested already, the “why” should play a big part in determining the “how.”

Whatever we decide regarding the ultimate goals of the public education system, it is clear that students must be examined to determine the knowledge and skills that they have learned in school. We do need to test their readiness for college and employment. But the other side of this coin is that the education process must be capable of transferring knowledge and skills in targeted areas.

A successful educational system must not only address student weaknesses, ensuring at least a rudimentary understanding of mathematics, science, languages, literature, writing, and reading comprehension; it must also nurture individual strengths, giving students an opportunity to develop their unique interests and gifts in preparation for a productive career.

We must also consider the non-academic costs of retention and social promotion on students and the education system as a whole. Although they are inherently difficult to gauge, we know that grade retention and social promotion have impacts that are academic, social, economic, and even emotional in nature.

The American School Counseling Association (ASCA) has offered a model for managing grade retention and social promotion that concentrates on the psychosocial aspects of student learning.

The ASCA’s model for developing academic policies and is based on standards intended to be implemented by school counselors. The ASCA’s model assumes that educators would be more effective at bringing about educational reform if they were more aware of the psychosocial factors that impact students.

Recommendations for educators have included input and supports not only from school counselors but also from teachers, administrators, and parents. This is largely because of the recognized need for as many stakeholders as possible to collaborate in support of academically struggling students.

The ASCA identified many barriers to educational reform, including several that explain precisely why collaborative, comprehensive support strategies are needed to support struggling students. Barriers include family stressors, apathy towards school and potential personal success, academic deficiencies, disabilities, poor behavior to support educators’ efforts, and limited access to resources.

Awareness of barriers to academic success can translate into an awareness of strategies for providing support. For instance, educators are in a good position to be able to resolve academic problems in collaboration with students and parents; They can provide insight into learning strategies for the individual student that may help the to help themselves achieve academic success.

Research has shown that retention causes changes in the lives of adolescents who lack coping skills to recover from the experience itself. Indeed, pressures of certain life changes and life events can be the cause of academic struggles. The intertwining of problems inside and outside the schoolroom highlights the need for a comprehensive approach to supporting students. Bullying and teasing can impact retained or socially promoted students and create additional academic struggles. The development and implementation of a comprehensive guidance curriculum by school counselors can support struggling students and minimize the recourse to retention or social promotion.

The second standard of the ASCA model includes programs that address bullying and teasing of students. Such consideration should be an element of a viable strategy for reducing the need for retention or social promotion. Another suggestion from the ASCA is that educators become advocates for students at risk of retention. Effective educators can advocate for students by making other stakeholders in a school aware of particular struggles and the potential need for more significant supports in the classroom.

Click here to read all my suggestions for alternatives to social promotion and retention.

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Matthew Lynch published in Policy & Reform, Retention & Social Promotion Series, Trending Topics

Pass or Fail: Who are the Students at Risk for Retention?

In this multi-part series, I provide a dissection of the phenomenon of retention and social promotion. Also, I describe the many different methods that would improve student instruction in classrooms and eliminate the need for retention and social promotion if combined effectively.

While reading this series, periodically ask yourself this question: Why are educators, parents and the American public complicit in a practice that does demonstrable harm to children and the competitive future of the country?

As an educator, how should potentially “at risk” students be identified? Is there a sector of the student population that should receive more attention based solely on their disadvantages or lack of support?

Fundamentally, both social promotion and retention work on the principle that typical children should master certain material according to an age-grade classroom structure. In other words, both policies assume there is such a thing as a typical child, and that most children are typical.

They also assume there is a ready way to gauge how typical children develop. While this last contention is fairly reasonable and is foundational to a whole range of developmental research, the merits of the other two are debatable. Are they reasonable enough to be a foundation for education? For an entire institution of public education?

We can at least agree that the emphasis on what is “typical” is an obvious limitation of both policies. Is it logical to base an education policy on this notion? At best, there is an applicable range for developmental trends and abilities. Those trends and ranges serve to help parents, educators, and even health practitioners garner a basic idea of how a child should be developing. But there is always a scale, and there’s seldom the expectation that every child will meet the same developmental criteria at the same time. That is, in any area except education.

Retention often takes place in earlier grades, with most retention occurring in grades K–3. The vast majority of these retentions take place in kindergarten or first grade, which is consistent with the focus of state-level retention policies. Children with certain background characteristics are at a higher risk for retention, inevitably creating a public policy issue for the public education system.

Perhaps most strikingly, we see that children from low socioeconomic backgrounds and children of color are more likely to be at risk for retention. Research shows that boys are more likely to find themselves retained than girls. Children with attention issues, behavior issues, or delayed development are also more at risk for retention, as are students whose families tend to be more mobile. Children from single parent homes, or homes where parents have low educational attainment, are also at higher risk for retention.

Children who are young for their grade level and children are who are small for their age seem to have a higher risk of retention, although the evidence for this is inconsistent. The increasing population of English Language Learners constitutes yet another group of children at risk for failure. For children with multiple at-risk characteristics, the incidence of retention increases.

Because of the varying strategies for addressing learning issues by state, students are also at a relatively higher risk for retention in certain states. Those states employing more regular and rigorous assessments by age tend to create a greater risk for retention for students. These assessments are interventions in their ways, though, further clouding the actual benefits or disadvantages inherent to retention.

Given that retention is so often based on testing, there are inevitable risks based on whether students are good exam takers. Some exceptional students just do not perform well under exam conditions. In addition to this, we see some disparity in terms of subject testing, since there are different assessment types and methodologies depending on the knowledge area or skills under examination. Subjectivity comes into play to some degree, with written assessments and even non-test-based assessments, for which retention policies rarely make allowance.

In the states that administer high school exit exams, there are pass rates between 70-90 percent. For states that report disaggregated data, a substantial gap exists between pass rates for white students and students of color. For example, there are gaps ranging from 13-36 percentage points between white and African American students on mathematics tests, and 8-19 percentage points on tests of English Language Arts.

The differences between white and Hispanic students range between 2-23 percentage points, and 9-19 percentage points, respectively, for mathematics and English Language Arts. High school exit exams leave no time for improvement, however. Poor performance on state high school exit exams often leave students discouraged, and many end up dropping out of school rather than opting to retake the exam. The obvious problem being that students may be permanently set back as a result of a single test or because of a single area of struggle.

How do you feel educators can impact at risk students best? Should different instructional methods be utilized for various at risk student groups? Further, how does one determine which instruction techniques will be best suited for the particular group of students needing intervention?

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Matthew Lynch published in Early Childhood & K-12 EdTech, EdTech & Innovation, Trending Topics

What Are the Benefits of Using Virtual Reality in K-12 Schools?

Virtual reality is one of the biggest trends in education, right alongside makerspaces. However, if you ask the average educator what the benefits of using VR in the classroom are, many would draw a blank. Why? Because a lot of educators literally jump on the bandwagon of the newest technologies without doing their homework. In the end, their students suffer. If you are an educator who currently uses or wants to use virtual reality, but don’t fully understand its full capabilities and benefits, then I am talking to you. Not to fret, if you keep reading this article, you will find out what all the hype is about, and how virtual reality technology can help your students prosper.

Allows students to experience things that are not possible in a traditional classroom. By using a VR headset or device, students can be transported to places and environments which are not readily available to them. This enhances their learning experience and can help them visualize things that were previously only theoretical. Imagine if you a student who is learning about the American Revolution and are curious about the life of a “redcoat” or British soldier. With the help of virtual reality, you could be transported to the Battle of Bunker Hill and experience it firsthand. The first thing that you would probably notice is the sense of urgency in the air, and the fierce fighting going on all around. While this would not be appropriate for younger students, older students could certainly benefit from the experience. These types of experiences also help students connect to the material being presented, and the importance of learning history.

Makes students interested in learning. Students love to watch something as opposed to reading or hearing it. By creating a visual representation of the materials being taught, students become engaged more than ever before. Things that they would never be able to experience in real life, all of a sudden become tangible. This motivates students to learn, and suddenly learning becomes a passion, not a requirement. It doesn’t feel like work anymore, it seems like fun. As a general rule, when we enjoy something, we do it with more purpose and drive.

Eliminates the language barrier. The language barrier is usually a problem when it comes to international education. If you want to study in another country, you have to have a decent command of the language. With virtual reality and its subsequent software, every possible language can be embedded into the learning experience. Language is no longer a barrier.

Did I leave anything out?

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Matthew Lynch published in Policy & Reform, Trending Topics

4 Things That Educators Should Know About Education Reform

The United States educational system has undergone several reforms in response to the ever-changing needs of society. As high school graduates are expected to become a part of the national workforce, the output of schools needs to be in line with the expectations conferred on the national workforce as a whole. In this article, you will be guided through the major reforms that have taken place in the United States.

Reform refers to rectifying something that is unfit for its purpose. It is an ongoing process. Your educational experience was likely influenced by reform, and no doubt you too will be required to make certain adjustments or changes in your style of teaching on the basis of new reforms. Reform initiatives are also powerful sociopolitical agendas, which may determine the education you receive to become a teacher, the structure of the school in which you will teach, or the perception of what constitutes “effective teaching” as you begin your work as a new teacher.

To understand actions to change today’s education environment, you must have an understanding of reforms of the past. This will not only help you to become a better teacher; it will also allow you to use this knowledge when you become involved in the making and shaping of educational policy. Developments in technology, growing concerns around sustainability and increasing globalization, and the diverse multicultural society that has developed all put pressure on the educational system to change and undergo reforms. You never know what challenges the future will hold in this regard, or when you will be called upon to comment on or participate in reform initiatives.

Of fundamental importance to any discussion of educational reform is the role played by major stakeholders in the U.S. educational enterprise. As result, throughout this article we address the roles played by school districts, the states, and the federal government, and the impact of each on education reform. We also look at your calling to be a teacher, and the role you will play in enacting and participating in educational reform.

What education reforms in the United States have influenced how education is viewed and practiced today? The Commission of the Reorganization of Secondary Education’s 1918 report recommended that high schools offer a more diverse array of material than purely academic subjects. Subsequent reforms bolstered the provision of electives, and introduced guidance counselors and vocational training. The 1983 A Nation at Risk report suggested that the United States was failing to provide an adequate education. This report led to reforms in standardizing academic content and to a focus on standardized testing. In the 1980s and 1990s, teachers reacted against the confines of the standardized testing model. Growing awareness of poverty led to “full-service” schools, which provided health care, parent instruction, and more. In the 2000s, more diverse opportunities were on offer, including a rise in homeschooling, charter schools, and virtual schools. With the school voucher system, magnet schools, and open enrollment, strictures on attending public schools loosened somewhat.

What role (current and historical) has the school district, state, and federal government played in educational reform in the United States? District involvement in educational reform has traditionally been heavy, but recently districts are becoming more decentralized, giving more power to school boards and principals. States were initially interested in results-based reforms, focusing on grades and test scores. In the late 1980s, states moved toward more deregulation, which lasted about a decade. In the 1990s, states restructured schools in ways that fostered student development and empowered teachers. The No Child Left Behind Act in the early 2000s returned to a focus on standards-based education, though it has been heavily criticized and is viewed as being in need of reform. In the early 2010s, the federal government created the Common Core Standards, which provide teachers with insights into the skills and knowledge students require to excel.

At the end of December 2015, President Obama signed the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) into law, effectively sweeping away NCLB (Nelson 2015). The new bill made major changes to federal education policy. One thing that changed with the ESSA was how teacher performance is evaluated. States now have the ability to individually appraise how well its teachers are doing performance wise. Another alteration under the new law will allow states “to come up with their own way to determine the quality of their local schools.” This means that test scores are no longer the sole deciding factor for school performance.

ESSA lists music as a component of a well-rounded education and gives it more support than previous policies when it comes to access and funding. The law also means federal grant funding is opened for states and local school districts to support music education programs and further train music teachers. ESSA has been a long time coming. Considering that NCLB had needed an update since 2007, it is shocking how long it took to sign this new law.

What are the most significant trends and developments in educational reform in the United States today? Alternative teacher education programs are growing, though there have been criticisms that they focus on quantity rather than quality. The Teacher Education Accreditation Council (TEAC) and the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) are in the process of merging into a single body called the Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP). NCLB has expanded parental rights by giving them more public school options. More collaboration between educational bodies at the state and district levels are helping to improve policy coordination. The idea of year-round schools is gaining ground among some reformers. Value-added assessment, which focuses on individual improvement rather than comparative scores, is another idea on the rise.

What factors promote successful reform? The creation of a “road map” is key to sustaining reform. Schools need commitment; ongoing improvement and development; adequate time to accomplish reform; effective, sustained leadership; and adequate funding. Accurate and effective evaluation of the reforms is also crucial.

Did we miss anything?

Click here to read all of the articles from this series.

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Matthew Lynch published in Diversity

5 Things That Educators Should Know About Diversity

We live in a diverse world. Nowhere is this more evident than in the United States. For decades, our country has been known as the “Land of Opportunity.” A chance to participate in making use of these opportunities, however, requires the acquisition of an education. This education is easier to come by for some groups of people than others. For instance, there are some people who still believe that children with learning disabilities or physical disabilities should be kept out of the school environment. Not only does this type of thinking prevent these children from receiving an adequate education; it also prevents them from becoming independent and active contributors to society in their lives beyond school.

In order to understand the full impact of student differences on school environments, multiple aspects of diversity need to be addressed. The areas in which differences can exist include gender, socioeconomic status, and sexual orientation. It is also important to consider student variability in areas such as learning style and ability when we address the differences existing among students in schools.

Diversity in the United States is well represented in American schools. Public schools were created with the intention of ensuring that all students have equal access to quality education. Teachers today work in schools with diverse populations of students, in a country where diversity is only now being accepted and embraced. This diversity, however, extends beyond the boundaries of culture and ethnicity. It includes differences in affiliation, preferences, and sexual orientation. In this article, we will discuss all of the things that educators should know about diversity.

How intellectually diverse are our schools? Older IQ tests as a means of measuring intelligence are seen as flawed, and were often used to promote a racist agenda. Howard Gardner’s notion of multiple intelligences is gaining acceptance. Currently, the Wechler test, which also takes into account a broad variety of factors, is viewed as the most accurate measure of intelligence.

Gifted students and students with learning disabilities require special attention. Gifted students may benefit from broadened and accelerated learning. For students who have learning disabilities, it is important to ascertain the nature of the learning disability and work at solutions to enable the student to learn effectively. Students with learning disabilities may be highly intelligent, and many noted personalities have had learning disabilities. The law stipulates that students with learning disabilities should be given appropriate and nondiscriminatory education. Teachers will have to fill out Individualized Education Plans for these students.

How does gender affect student learning? Boys and girls have traditionally been treated differently in the classroom, and have been represented differently in textbooks, reflecting cultural norms. Boys are more likely to enroll in classes in mathematics, science, and engineering. Girls tend to do better in reading and writing and other academic subjects, but women still do not achieve the same job status and pay as men with equal qualifications: the gender gap has not yet been breached. While there are socially constructed differences, there also seem to be biological factors at play, though these are still not fully understood. It is important to create gender-aware classrooms, using teaching styles that appeal to both boys and girls. An approach focusing on students where they are, rather than the standardized “one size fits all” idea, may be useful.

What are the educational implications of sexual orientation? Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) students are gaining increasing acceptance in educational settings, though this is highly dependent on location. However, the situation in U.S. schools is still difficult for LGBT students, and they are often the focus of bullying and aggression. This is even truer for LGBT students of color. Regardless of the policies of the school and the state, it is crucial that all students are safe from bullying, whether verbal or physical, from fellow students and teachers. As a teacher, you are obliged to protect your students, and to report abuse.

What are some of the other challenges that students face? Poverty is a dire and growing problem in the United States, particularly among minorities. As the gap between the wealthiest and poorest Americans continues to widen, those at the bottom end of the economic scale are being left behind. Problems they face include drugs, violence, broken homes, hunger, and inadequate medical coverage.

One and a half million children in the United States  are homeless, and face a special set of problems, including lack of nutrition and difficulties finding transportation. Many have faced  physical, sexual, or emotional abuse.

Teachers should be aware of signs that point to abuse, including shyness, bruises, and aggression, and should follow up with the appropriate authorities. Note that 97 percent of juvenile offenders were abused as children.

Bullying is perennial problem in schools, and now includes cyber bullying: bullying over the Internet. Violence is a related problem. In schools that have a problem with violence, structures should be put in place to minimize the issues. Drug use includes alcohol and tobacco, as well as illegal drugs. Thus far, programs implemented by schools and the government have done little to alleviate the problem.

Other issues faced by students include pregnancy and sex outside of marriage. Most schools promote abstinence, while still offering advice on safe sex and preventing and coping with pregnancy.

How can teachers accommodate different learning styles? Every student has an individual style of learning. They may be classified into three broad types of learners: visual, auditory, or kinesthetic. It may be helpful to view intelligence not as a linear scale but as a web. Your task as a teacher is to develop each student’s strengths and needs. Students are influenced by both “emotional” factors, which refers to the responsibility and persistence that the student naturally puts into learning, and “sociological” factors, which refers whether a student has a preference in learning individually, or in small or large groups. The Learning Style Inventory, which looks at five categories—environmental emotional, sociological, physiological, and psychological—may be helpful in assessing a student’s learning style.

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Matthew Lynch published in Ask An Expert

The A-Z of Education: The Philosophy of Education

In this series, I hope to guide you in acquiring the vocabulary that you need to know to be considered a competent education professional. In this article, we will discuss education vocabulary centered on the philosophy of education.

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Alienation denotes a society that is organized into classes based on what they do or do not own.

American Exceptionalism is the idea that the United States is a special country with a manifest destiny.

Axiology is the branch of philosophy that considers the study of fundamental principles.

Behaviorism is the perspective that because behaviors are caused by experiences, altering circumstances will alter behaviors. (Also known as Behavior Modification)

Classical Conditioning is another term for conditioned behavior, a behavior that responds to a stimulus that doesn’t normally cause that reflexive response.

Classical Idealism is a branch of Idealist philosophy searching for the absolute truth. It is the theories of the renowned Western philosophers Socrates and Plato (427–347 BC), who were searching for an absolute truth.

Classical Realism is a branch of Realist philosophy that suggests that matter is real and that it is separate from our perceptions.

Cognitive Psychology, also known as constructivism, is the perspective that students “build” their knowledge as new experiences are linked to previous experiences.

Conception of Property and the Government is the liberalist notion that government shouldn’t interfere with business transactions.

Conceptualization of Ideas refers to the knowledge acquired through big ideas that allow us to understand the world around us.

Conditioned Behavior refers to a behavior that responds to a stimulus that doesn’t normally cause that reflexive response. (Also known as “reflexive conditioning” or “classical conditioning.”)

Conservatism is the belief that institutions should function according to their intended original purpose and any concepts that have not been maintained should be restored

Constructivism is the perspective that students “build” their knowledge as new experiences are linked to previous experiences. (Also known as Cognitive Psychology.)

Critical Theory is a philosophy of education that analyzes institutions, organizations, and instruction in terms of power relationships.

Deconstruction Method is a process of criticizing literary text, philosophical text, and political theory. It entails a breakdown of the rational purposes, or logos, of earlier Western philosophy that was believed to govern the universe.

Deductive Reasoning is reasoning that allows a person to think from general principles to a specific event.

Dialectical Epistemology is continuing to engage in class conflict and struggle and materialism.

Dialectical Materialism is the combination of materialism and realism with the Idealist idea of dialectical change. It perceives society as a developing and constantly changing network of human relationships that have economic consequences.

Educating for General Citizenship refers to the Liberalist belief that we should educate everyone equally and in preparation to become a political leader.

Episteme are the assumptions that contribute to a society at a particular time in history.

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that contemplates how people come to learn what they know.

Equalitarian refers to aspiring to the doctrine that all human beings are equal; a less common word for egalitarian.

Essentialism is a philosophy of education that consists of core knowledge in reading, writing, math, science, history, foreign language, and technology.

Ethno-nationalism refers to loyalty to an ethnic or racial group rather than to a nation.

Existentialism is the philosophy that accentuates attentive personal consideration about one’s character, beliefs, and choices. The primary question existentialists ask is whether they want to define who they are themselves, or whether they want society to define them.

Existentialist Phenomenology concludes that we construct our own truths from within, as opposed to the previous theories of one universal truth.

Experimentalism is a conjecture that the earth is still in process and is still becoming, so that there is no absolute truth.

Forms of Good refers to a belief by Plato who arranged his ideas, referred to as “forms,” in a hierarchy with the greatest of all forms being the Forms of Good.

Global Communication Processes are how information is delivered. Television, email, Internet, newspapers, and textbooks are all sources of Globalization Communication

Global Economic Processes involve all aspects of buying and selling goods and services across the globe.

Global Educational Processes are the process by which schools and universities are expected to “compare and compete” globally. The World Bank fosters to the globalization these institutions by adjusting policies for less technologically developed countries.

Global Political Processes are the process by which government and officials are expected to “compare and compete” globally. The World Bank fosters to the globalization these institutions by adjusting policies for less technologically developed countries.

Globalization is the process that promotes worldwide participation and relationships between people of different countries, cultures, and languages.

Great Works are works of literature written by history’s finest thinkers that transcend time and never become outdated.

Historical Materialism is an analysis of capitalism.

Humanistic Psychology is a philosophy that focuses on the value and meaning of education rather than the dissemination and attainment of facts.

Idealism is a major school of thought in educational philosophy, of which the underlying principle is that reality is mostly spiritual. It is the belief that physical things exist only in the mind.

Individualism is the Liberalist belief that individuals retain inherent human rights that the social order cannot give or take away.

Inductive Reasoning refers to reasoning that allows a person to think from that specific event back to what the general principle was that caused the event.

Information Processing refers to how the brain processes information by attending to stimuli, and receiving, storing, and retrieving information.

Liberalism is the ideology that people should enjoy the greatest possible individual freedom and that it should be guaranteed by due process of law.

Life-Affirmation involves questioning even the most socially acceptable doctrines, such as Christianity and morality.

Logic is the branch of philosophy that looks to bring organization to the reasoning process.

Marginalize refers to taking or keeping somebody or something away from the center of attention, influence, or power.

Marxism is an ideological and political movement that focuses on the class system as a form of conflict within the social, political, and educational realms.

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that considers questions about the physical universe.

Modern Idealism is a branch of Idealist philosophy that believes in a material world and a world of the mind. It implies that since a man is thinking that he must exist. It further questions existence and how we came to be, concluding that some form of deity must be present that allows us to exist.

Modern Realism is a branch of Realist philosophy that suggests that everything we know comes from experience and reflecting on that experience. We are not born with any innate or preconceived ideas, but rather are a blank slate.

Nationalism is a national spirit, a love of one’s country, and the emotional ties to the interests of a nation and the symbols that represent it.

Operant Conditioning is a behavior conditioned by reinforcement for performing desired actions rather than causing reflexive behaviors.

Paideia Program refers to a Perennialist program developed from the book The Paideia Proposal. It is based on the Great Works of literature, and has been implemented by hundreds of schools in the United States.

The Paideia Proposal is a book that was written by Mortimer Alder in 1982, which described a system of education based on the Great Works. The book inspired the school model referred to as the “Paideia Program.”

Perennialism is a philosophy of education that asserts that certain notions transcend time and are predominantly found in the great literature of the ages.

Philosophy of Education Statement is a written description of what we interpret the best approach to education to be.

Postmodernism is a major school of thought in Educational Philosophy that describes the cultural changes to philosophy that are caused by present-day information such as from contemporary literature, feminism, and art.

Pragmatism is a major school of thought in Educational Philosophy, which concludes that our ideas serve a purpose and that we seek out that purpose by solving problems and considering what the consequences may be.

Problem-Solving Method is the method developed by John Dewey that deduces that people think in order to solve problems, and lists the steps used to search for absolute truth. The steps include: recognizing that there is a problem, clearly defining a problem, suggesting possible solutions, considering possible consequences, and observing and experimenting to either accept or reject the idea as an absolute truth.

Progress and Representative Political Institutions refer to the Liberalist belief that holds that liberation of human rights will lead to improving the human condition.

Rationality and the Power of Reasoning refers to the belief that most people can be reasonable, and that teachers need to use teaching methods that build and support the ability to rationalize and use their intelligence

Realism is a major school of thought in Educational Philosophy that is the notion that the world exists “because it does.”

Reflexive Conditioning is another term for conditioned behavior: a behavior that responds to a stimulus that doesn’t normally cause that reflexive response.

Religious Idealism is the branch of Idealist philosophy that theorizes two separate worlds: a world of God and a world of humanity. These two worlds are separated by sin, and the soul is the bridge to rejoin the world of God.

Religious Realism is the branch of Realist philosophy that presumes that God is pure reasoning, which is the truth of all things. Religious Realists believe the sole purpose of existence is to reunite the soul with God.

Scaffolding is a constructivist technique of “constructing meaning.”

Schemata are how we organize our knowledge that allows us easy access to memories that haven’t been used in some time.

Secularism is the belief in the strict enforcement of the separation of church and state.

Social Reconstructionism is the perspective that schools are the organization that should be used to solve society’s problems.

Society-Centered Philosophies go beyond focusing on strictly the teacher or the student, and focus on a group or a people instead. Whether it is a minority group or the world as a whole, society-centered philosophies focus on educating a group of people rather than a curriculum or a student.

Socratic Method is the process of gaining knowledge by carefully questioning and then criticizing the answers.

Socratic Seminars are lectures in which the teacher asks a specific series of questions in order to encourage the students to think, rationalize, and discuss the topic.

Student-Centered Philosophies refer to philosophies that focus more on educating students individually. They place more emphasis on the individuality of the students and helping them to realize their potential.

Teacher-Centered Philosophies are philosophies that pass knowledge on from one generation of teachers to the next. In teacher-centered philosophies, the job of the teacher is to impart a respect for authority, determination, a strong work ethic, compassion for those around us, and sensibility.

Are there any terms that we missed?

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