Teaching Strategies, Tactics, and Methods

Narrative genres are a form of classification that one can sort literary works into through their stylistic choices. These stylistic elements may include characteristics such as theme, tropes, settings, character types, and structure. However, it is not uncommon for narrative pieces to fall into multiple genres, mainly if the work contains a multitude of subplots. Some types of narrative genres include:

• Folklore and Fairy tale
• Fable
• Fantasy
• Science Fiction
• Romance

Folklore and Fairy Tales

Folklore is cultural tales shared by a particular group that contains traditions, proverbs, myths, and legends. These tales are part of their culture’s identity. Folklore is an ancient narrative genre, with its roots predating writing and being shared in oral storytelling and music.

Folklore deeply reflects a culture’s historical background, reflecting the traditions passed down through the generations. In addition, any folklore stories con

Some famous examples of folklore stories are:

‘Little Red Riding Hood’: This is a European folk tale about a young girl being pursued by a Big Bad Wolf, and records of this tale predate the 17thCentury. This tale demonstrates the dangers of the world beyond the safety of the village and how one should be careful.

‘Hansel and Gretel’: This is a German folk tale about a brother and sister attempting to escape the clutches of a witch. Some say this tale can be traced back to the 16th Century. This tale contains a similar message to Little Red Riding Hood and is a cautionary tale about the world’s dangers.

A fairy tale is a type of narrative genre that is a subgenre of Folklore. These stories are characterized by fantastical creatures such as dragons, elves, and talking animals and contain elements of magic. While some cultures do not distinguish between these two types of narrative genres, others do, characterizing fairy tales as being entirely fictional, having a pleased ending, and being ‘set once upon a time.’

Some famous examples of fairy tales include:

• ‘Cinderella’ or ‘The Little Glass Slipper’: This fairy tale follows a girl called Cinderella who lives in poverty and is the victim of cruelties done to her by her evil stepmother and stepsisters. However, her circumstances change dramatically with her ascension to the throne and marriage to the prince. Cinderella has its roots in Ancient Egypt and is a quintessential fairy tale.

• ‘Sleeping Beauty’: This classic fairy tale us about a princess who is cursed by an evil fairy to sleep for 100 years, but she is to be awakened by a handsome prince. The earliest known versions of this narrative are dated around 1330. This is another fairy tale that employs the classic fairy tale trope of defeating evil and living happily ever after.

Fables

Fables are a narrative genre that focuses on illustrating a moral lesson. These moral lessons must be discerned from the tale, or an explicit maxim must be stated.

Fables are written in either prose or verse and explicitly feature anthropomorphized animals, plants, mythical and legendary creatures, and natural forces. These elements are a vital part of the fable genre.

However, fables are often confused with parables, but the key difference is that parables actively exclude this anthropomorphizing and heavily focus on human characters instead.

Some famous examples of fables are:

• Aesop’s fable of ‘The Tortoise and the Hare’ follows the story of a hare and a tortoise in a race. While the hare races ahead and becomes arrogant in its speed and sure victory, the tortoise takes their time. This fable concludes with the hare taking a nap as they underestimate the tortoise, and the tortoise eventually wins the race. This tale tends to teach the maxim ‘slow and steady wins the race’ and portrays the benefits of patience and taking one’s time.
• Aesop’s fable of ‘The Lion and the Mouse’: A lion shows mouse mercy by freeing them. Later, the lion gets trapped by hunters, but the same mouse who the lion freed helps them escape. This story teaches the importance of showing mercy and gratitude.

Fantasy

Fantasy is a narrative genre that incorporates fantastical and magical elements into the piece that do not exist. While there are tropes that are typical of the fantasy genre, such as the existence of magic and certain mythological beings like elves, it is a genre that is so broad that it includes a variety of subdivisions to categorize it further.

Some of these include:

• High Fantasy or Epic Fantasy: Works of this kind are separate from our actual world. The author has devised their species, cultures, and scientific laws. In works like these, the stakes tend to be extremely high and on a colossal scale. An example of high fantasy is J.R.R. Tolkien’s ‘Lord of the Rings.’

• Low Fantasy: Low fantasy tends to differ from high fantasy because it does not always occur in a fantastic place. It tends to incorporate magical elements into an otherwise ordinary world. An example of this fantasy type is J.K. Rowling’s ‘Harry Potter’ series or C.S. Lewis’ ‘The Chronicles of Narnia.’

Science Fiction

Science fiction is a narrative genre that explores worlds with unique technologies. This genre typically contains innovative technologies and deals with space, time travel, and exploration concepts. Stories within this genre can go from almost fantasy-like with epic stakes and adventure to mundane, everyday stories where advanced technology plays a role.

Like fantasy, science fiction also has a myriad of different subdivisions to help further categorize the genre. A popular one is a distinction between hard and soft science fiction.

• Hard Science Fiction: These are pieces of literature that can stand against scientific scrutiny and are rooted in fact and logic. These stories lack fantastical elements as they are not seen as scientifically plausible and are more concerned with possible outcomes or situations that may not have occurred but could potentially occur one day.

• Soft Science Fiction: Soft science fiction tends to be much more lenient on the factual plausibility of events. These pieces are rooted in science fiction because they are overtly characterized by technology but may contain fantastical elements. These works don’t necessarily have to be possible if they are plausible.

Romance

The romance genre is a work that emphasizes two people’s romantic relationships. The characters in this novel tend to find a happy ending, with the work’s overall tone being optimistic. However, that does not mean these works cannot contain their fair share of angst. Having an obstacle to overcome is a common trope in a lot of romance pieces, as it makes the resolution more satisfying.

Romance novels date back to Ancient Greece and have maintained their position as one of the most popular types of narrative genres. It is such a broad genre that it overlaps many different genres. Romance can be woven into almost any other genre and can be used to add stakes and intensity to the plot. For example, many works fall into historical romance, fantasy romance, and science fiction romance. So, while romance can stand on its own as a genre, it is also flexible enough to be interwoven throughout different genres.

When answering the question ‘what is a computer?’ it’s essential to consider where the name ‘computer’ comes from. The word computer comes from the Latin word ‘computare,’ which means ‘to calculate’ or ‘to count.’ As computers weren’t around in the Roman era, the name ‘computer’ was given to people who did calculations using mechanical calculators, such as the abacus. In 1613, English poet Richard Braithwaite also used the term ‘computer’ to describe someone who could do calculations perfectly.

Today, a computer is an electronic device that can input, output, store, and process information, otherwise known as ‘data.’ The computer receives data in a combination of 1s and 0s, known as binary code. You can think of binary code as its language, that computers translate into complex things, such as an image or a video.

Different types of computer

When talking about computers, most people are referring to ‘personal computers,’ such as laptops or desktop computers. And our smartphones have become small personal computers we use throughout the day. But did you know that there are different types of computers? Yes, other computers have additional data processing abilities and are categorized based on their purpose, data handling, and functionality.

The different types of computers are:

• Analog computers
• Personal computers
• Workstation
• Minicomputer
• Mainframe
• Supercomputer

Analog computers process analog data and store it in continuous physical quantities. They perform calculations (rather than instructions) with the support of measures. They’re great for situations where data needs to be measured directly.

A workstation is a particular type of computer connected to a network, and the operating systems they use to allow more than one person to work on it simultaneously. They are used primarily for scientific applications.

A minicomputer is, well, a mini-computer. It has most of the features of a personal computer and can do the same things, but it’s physically smaller.

A mainframe computer is a large and powerful computer that can do large information processing jobs and run a full cooperation’s data processing. The government uses these for census or big companies to analyze consumer statistics.

A supercomputer is not only the most expensive computer but also the most powerful one. This is because it has excellent memory and speed – it’s nearly a thousand times faster than a personal computer and can perform billions of calculations per second.

So, when answering the question ‘what a computer is?’ you’ll now be able to explain that there are different types of computers, and while they all perform the same functions, they have other capabilities.

The history of a computer

We can’t answer ‘what is a computer?’ without also looking at the history of computers. So, let’s begin!

Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace

Charles Babbage built the first mechanical computer in 1837. Charles Babbage was a mathematician, inventor, mechanical engineer, and philosopher, and he is thought to be the ‘Father of the Computer’ because his Analytical Engine could input and output data. Data input was done via punched cards; these controlled the mechanical calculator.

However, Charles Babbage only considered his invention the sophisticated calculating machine; Ada Lovelace recognized it could do more than calculations.

Ada Lovelace, a mathematician, was intrigued by the Analytical Engine and worked out that it could do many sorts of processes, such as composing music. Then, in 1847, she devised an algorithm that instructed the machine to perform different functions. So, Ada Lovelace is considered to be the first computer programmer.

Alan Turing

Alan Turing is one of the most influential people of the 20th century. During his time at Princeton University, Turing designed a theoretical machine named the Universal Machine that could solve any mathematical problem and perform any task.

Alan Turing was more than just a theorist, though. He worked as a codebreaker during the Second World War and attempted to decode the German military’s Enigma Cipher machine. Unfortunately, the Enigma Cipher machine’s encryptions were impossible to solve, and there were billions of encryption schemes.

This led Turing, along with the help of his colleagues and the work of Polish mathematicians, to devise an electromechanical machine that could scan through all the encryptions and help the Allied Intelligence decode the Germans’ Enigma Code. This electromechanical machine, called Bombe, shortened the Second World War by two years, saving millions of live, and was the beginning of digital computers as we know them today.

After the Second World War, Alan Turing continued his work and was employed by the National Physical Laboratory. There, he designed the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE), the first electronic stored-program all-purpose digital computer.

Microsoft, Apple, the Internet, and more!

Many advancements were made to improve and develop the computer in the 20th century, but one notable advancement was the founding of Microsoft. Bill Gates and Paul Allen founded Microsoft in 1975 and developed an operating system in partnership with IBM. A year later, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozinak, and Ronald Wayne founded Apple INC and created Apple 1, the first computer with a single circuit board.

n 1981, IBM released the first personal computer, which used Microsoft’s operating system. This led to the development of many personal computers, including a display, a printer, disk drives, extra memory, and a game adaptor.

The invention of the internet began in 1983, and computer scientists Vinton Cerf and Bob Kahn worked on inventing the Internet communications protocols we use today. The internet is an extensive network of connected computers where users can communicate with each other and share information.

It wasn’t until the invention of the World Wide Web by Sir Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, though, that the internet was accessible to everyone – not just scientists. The World Wide Web (or www) allows webpages to be found easily on this network of computers. The internet will enable you to access and read these pages on your screen, from the comfort of your living room or while traveling on a train.

What is a computer used for?

• Education: A computer allows users to find information on an enormous range of topics. This information can aid pupils’ learning and help them complete research on a topic. It also helps educators find resources for their pupils to use.
• Medicine: Technology has advanced medical equipment, and computers have helped digitalize medical information that doctors, nurses, and medical students can access.
• Science: Scientists can collaborate with other scientists and specialists all over the globe and share their research. They can store and analyze their data on computers too.
• Entertainment: Most people use their computers for joy in one form or another. We can watch films or TV shows on our computers, play games, listen to music and talk to our friends and family.

These are just a few examples of how computers are used today and how computers have helped us and bettered our lives. It is essential, though, to be aware of how to use computers, particularly the internet, safely.

There were no team sports at the ancient Olympics.

While the games did lay the foundations for the Olympics we have today; there are quite a few differences. The games initially started as short foot races, around 200 meters, to keep men fit for war. The tracks were straight lines and were wide enough to fit around 20 men to run side by side.

Greek men ran these races naked! Thankfully, all of today’s events require competitors to be clothed. As the Olympics gained popularity, more events were added; these ranged from horse and chariot races to boxing and wrestling. All these events became extremely popular, but none required any teamwork.

There were no medals at the Olympics.

The award ceremony is a massive part of the Olympics today, but there weren’t any medals in ancient times. Unlike today, there would be one singular winner in each event, and there were no Gold, Silver, and Bronze medals.

Like there are today, there were judges at the games who would decide upon the winner. Winners were awarded a wreath of olives for winning their event. This wreath could even be worn as a crown to signal the competitor’s victory.

The leaves and olives used in the wreath were taken from a sacred tree by the temple of Zeus at Olympia. So, naturally, this made the prize all the more important and precious to the Greeks.

Women could not compete at the Olympics.

Sadly, women were not allowed to compete at the Olympics. Married women were not even permitted to attend the Olympics as visitors. If women were caught trying to sneak into the games, they would be thrown off Mount Olympus as punishment.

Women had an equivalent festival called Heraean Games, which also took place in Olympia. The festival was held in honor of Zeus’ wife, Hera. Women could participate in the foot race, but little is known about the Heraean games as they did not acquire the same success as the Olympics.

The games became hugely popular. 

Over time, the games became extremely popular and a crucial part of Ancient Greek culture. At the height of their popularity, 40,000 people would attend the games that spanned over five days. The games were so important that a temporary peace was established between all Greek city-states. This extraordinary truce was found a month before the games were due in August.

This truce would stop all wars and battles between city-states. This time would allow men to train for their events and allow people to travel between cities without fear of being attacked. Of course, little would stop the Ancient Greeks from fighting, but their love of the Olympics would unite everyone for a short period every four years.

The games were banned in 393 AD.

In 393 AD Emperor Theodosius banned the Olympic Games. This was because the Emperor called for all ‘pagan’ festivals to be banned in favor of the introduction of Christianity. While the Olympics had become a huge event, the sole reason for the events was to honor Zeus. With Christianity now taking precedent, the Emperor called for the event to be banned after nearly 12 continuous centuries of celebration.

It would take another 1,500 years to celebrate the modern Olympic Games. However, in 1896 Baron Pierre de Coubertin revived the Olympics as he admired the focus on physical fitness. Each year to commemorate the origin of the games, a torch is lit in Olympia and carried to the city that will host the games that year.

The statue of Zeus at Olympia was one of the seven ancient wonders.

The temple of Zeus that stood in Olympia, where the events would take place, was home to one of the world’s seven ancient wonders. A statue of Zeus stood 41 feet tall and was made by a sculptor named Phidias around 435 BC. The sculpture depicted Zeus sitting on a vast throne surrounded by different precious stones. This statue signified everything the games stood for.

The statue was lost in the 5th Century AD when it was destroyed. On the third day of the Olympics, in Zeus’ temple, 100 oxen would be burned and sacrificed to the god. This was a sign of respect and honor to Zeus and was an essential part of the festival.

An opinion is a view or judgment about something or someone that isn’t necessarily based on something factual. An idea is a personal judgment, thought, or belief.

What is the definition of and difference between ‘fact’ and ‘opinion’?

Someone’s opinion is a viewpoint they hold, based on evidence but which cannot be proved. Children often learn about opinions in contrast to facts and beliefs.

Opinions can also be called a judgment or an attitude towards the matter – a stance and conclusion reached given the person’s existing knowledge.

Facts can be proven true or false, but our opinions can be swayed and changed due to new information.

Facts are objectively true and have supporting evidence, while a belief is something that someone accepts as accurate without evidence – such as religious beliefs.

It’s essential to distinguish facts, opinions, and beliefs you come across and to understand whether our feelings about something have evidence.

Opinions in the digital age

To comprehend text, speech, and the media that saturates our lives, people need to be able to distinguish facts and opinions.

It is especially critical for children to learn about facts and opinions at school in a world with more fake news, conspiracy theories, and social media influencers/channels, which have given an open platform to many different people to promote their beliefs and opinions.

We must be discerning in the views we choose to listen to, as beliefs can sometimes lead to discrimination and misinformation spreading. Historically, we have seen this in the case of anti-Semitism during WW2. Prejudice is a preconceived opinion not based on knowledge.

Nowadays, many people online with inflammatory or uninformed opinions are just a click away, and some unscrupulous companies will take advantage of trusting individuals – we can empower children with a critical approach to statements.

The language of opinions and facts

We need strategies for telling facts and opinions apart. You can spot facts and views through the language signals and extract the truth from the speculation. Let’s explore a few examples of little words:

• Claims that
• They say
• Suspect that
• Argues that

In contrast, some words indicate factual statements:

• Proven;
• Confirmed;
• Evidence;
• According to.

Who was César Chávez?

César Chávez was an American labor leader and civil rights activist who campaigned for better treatment, conditions and pay for exploited farmworkers across North America.

Born in Arizona to Mexican parents, Chávez spent part of his youth working as a fruit picker on farmland across Arizona and California. He saw first-hand how poorly the farmworkers were treated. Knowing things wouldn’t change until someone did something about it, he decided to become that someone.

Chávez organized the workers and co-founded the United Farm Workers (UFW) trade union. Together they used forms of non-violent protest such as marching, fasting, picketing, and boycotting to make sure their voices were heard and their situation was known. Eventually, the plight of the farmworkers reached the consumers, who had no idea how cruelly the people who brought them their food were treated. As a result of Chávez’s tireless work, laws were passed to improve working conditions for all laborers, such as higher wages, access to drinking water and handwash, rest periods, and health benefits.

César Chávez Fact File

This César Chávez fact file acts as a condensed biography containing information all about César Chávez:

Full Name	Césario Estrada Chávez
Birthday	March 31, 1927
Place of Birth	Yuma, Arizona
Nationality	American
Occupation	Labor leader and civil rights activist
Family	Helen Fabela Chávez (wife) and eight children
Education	Laguna Dam School, Yuma, Arizona Miguel Hidalgo Junior School, Brawley, California Multiple other schools
Accomplishments	Co-founder of United Farm Workers (UFW) labor union (1962) Established union contracts for farmworkers requiring minimum wages, clean drinking water, periods of rest, health benefits, handwashing stations, and protective clothing against pesticides. Presidential Medal of Freedom (1994)

César Chávez Biography

Early Life

Césario Estrada Chávez was born on March 31, 1927, in Yuma, Arizona. He was the second child born to Librado and Juana Estrada Chávez, both born in Mexico and moved to the U.S. as children. He lived with his extended family on a farmstead along with his parents, sisters Rita and Vicki, brothers Richard and Librado, and paternal grandmother Dorotea. The family spoke Spanish and was raised in the Roman Catholic religion. Césario changed his name to César when the school he attended, Laguna Dam School in Yuma, Arizona, forbade speaking Spanish. He was nicknamed “Manzi” for his love of manzanilla (chamomile) tea, was a big fan of sports, and excelled at math.

Until the Great Depression, the Chávez family lived comfortably, but when the Great Depression hit and Dorotea passed away in 1937, the family was kicked off their land and farmstead, which was repossessed to cover her back taxes. Even as a child, César Chávez sensed the injustice of the situation. He moved with his family to California, where they worked as migrant workers, picking fruit and laboring in the fields. Chávez attended multiple schools over this time, moving to wherever his family needed to work and living in extreme poverty. He spent the longest time at Miguel Hidalgo Junior School in Brawley, California, but experienced prejudice due to his Mexican heritage and poor background.

When he graduated from Junior High in June 1942, he left school permanently with an 8th-grade education to work as a full-time farmworker. After two years, he enlisted in the United States Navy, making the rank of seaman first class. He was honorably discharged in 1946, when he rejoined his family in Delano, California, to work as a laborer.

Activism

César Chávez became involved in activism when he joined the National Farm Labor Union (NFLU). The NFLU called for a strike against the DiGiorgio fruit-growing corporation and asked their workers to join them, forming caravans outside the property. Chávez joined the striking workers and eventually led one of the caravans.

Around this time, César Chávez met his future wife, Helen Fabela. The two settled in San José, California, to raise a family while Chávez worked as an apricot picker and lumber handler. There he met Fred Ross and Father Donald McDonnell, social justice activists who became Chávez’s mentors and introduced him to the Community Service Organization (CSO) of San Jose. His involvement in the CSO introduced him to labor organizers and exposed Chávez to the concept of non-violent protest through the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi, who Chávez idolized.

Chávez helped Ross set up CSO chapters across California and would raise funds through unusual means such as organizing carnivals, opening a rummage store, or selling Christmas trees. In 1959 he was promoted to the CSO’s national director and moved his wife and eight children to Los Angeles. As national director, he managed to secure funding for the CSO, conducted voter registration schemes, and extended the state pension to permanent residents. Finally, after three years, he resigned and moved back to Delano to create a labor union for farmworkers.

The National Farm Workers Association

In 1962, César Chávez collaborated with activist and labor leader Dolores Huerta to create their vision of a labor union: the National Farm Workers Association or NFWA (this later came to be known as the United Farm Workers labor union). The flag was designed to look like a black eagle framed in white on a red background, and their motto was “Viva la causa” (“Long live the cause”). Later, they adopted “¡Sí, se puede!” a slogan created by Dolores Huerta that has long since been associated with the movement.

The purpose of the NFWA was to organize farmworkers to fight for their fundamental human rights through peaceful and non-violent means. They initially ran the NFWA out of Chávez’s home and recruited members from the San Joaquin Valley. Its reputation spread so fast that before long, it had members from all across the country and doubled its income by its second year. Then, with financial support behind them, the NFWA agreed to take on their first organized strike on behalf of rose grafters. The strike only lasted four days, after which the employers decided to pay the workers higher wages so they would return to work. With this victory under their belt, César Chávez and the NFWA set their sights on larger opponents.

The Delano Grape Strike

The Delano Grape Strike was initiated by the Filipino-American farmworkers of the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC), who protested for higher wages and safer working conditions against the Delano grape growers of California. The strike was supported by César Chávez and the NFWA, who helped to organize the farmworkers into groups of picketers. The strike was met with skepticism, and many believed Chávez to be a communist, so much so that the FBI launched an investigation into his work.

César Chávez continued to gather donations and support for the strike. He found support from students and the working class and set up protest camps with medical centers, nurseries, and entertainment. It was then that Chávez decided the best way to tackle the Delano grape growers was to boycott their products, bringing the plight of the farmworkers to the consumers who bought Delano grapes. He helped to organize a 300-mile march from Delano to the state capital of Sacramento. Despite intimidation and harassment along the way from supporters of the employers, the crowd of marchers arrived in Sacramento in Easter, having grown from 50 to 8,000 along the way. Because of the march, they agreed with Schenley, one of the grape growers, and decided to end the boycott against them. However, they still had other grape-growing giants to contend with.

In 1967, the NFWA purchased land and turned it into their headquarters, known as The Forty Acres. Concerned that his followers would resort to violence despite the union’s non-violent approach, César Chávez engaged in a 25-day fast in 1968, drinking only water to reaffirm his and the union’s commitment to peaceful protest. This caught the attention of Robert Kennedy (who had previously attended a meeting with Chávez in 1966) and was present when he broke his fast three weeks later. Kennedy asked Chávez to campaign for him, and his successful activism was a massive factor in Kennedy’s victory in California. Tragically, Kennedy was assassinated during the victory celebrations in Los Angeles on June 5, 1968. César Chávez was one of the pallbearers at Kennedy’s funeral.

Kennedy’s assassination came not long after the shooting of Martin Luther King Jr. in Memphis, Tennessee. As concern grew for the safety of civil rights campaigners, Chávez called for a boycott of all grape products in California. The grape producers pushed back with threats of similar sanctions on other products, but by then, César Chávez had reached celebrity status, had books written about him, and had appeared on the Time magazine cover. Finally, in July 1969, César Chávez and the NFWA entered into negotiations with the Delano grape growers. Included in the union’s demands were safety measures regarding the use of pesticides, a new health plan, work safety, increased wages, and the promise to tackle issues at Delano High School, where several students (including Chávez’s daughter Eloise) had been disciplined for supporting the boycott. The Delano grape growers signed the contracts with the union on July 29, 1970, effectively ending the Delano Grape Strike.

Later Life

In 1971, the NFWA became known as the UFW (United Farm Workers). César Chávez continued his activism long after the end of the Delano Grape Strike, taking part in the Salinas Lettuce Strike (1970-71) and melon strikes, among others. The union headquarters was moved to a new base donated by a wealthy Hollywood movie producer who supported Chávez. Situated at the foot of the Tehachapi Mountains in California, the commune was named Nuestra Señora Reina de la Paz (Our Lady Queen of Peace), though it came to be known as “La Paz.” After threats against his life, Chávez spent much of his time in the safety and seclusion of La Paz. However, he continued campaigning for workers’ rights until he died.

Chávez drew criticism for publicly denouncing the Vietnam War after his son Fernando was arrested as a conscientious objector. Because of his views, people often considered him to be a communist. He was also criticized for the cult of celebrity that surrounded him. Because of his previous work as a laborer, Chávez suffered from back pain throughout most of his life. He became a vegetarian in 1970 and adopted a diet to aid with his back pain. He was fond of animals, mainly German shepherd dogs, and kept several at La Paz, including Boycott and Huelga.

In 1988, César Chávez completed a 36-day Fast For Life before passing the fast on various celebrities and known figures. The Reverend Jesse Jackson, Martin Sheen, the Reverend J. Lowery, Edward Olmos, Emilio Estevez, Kerry Kennedy, Peter Chacon, Julie Carmen, Danny Glover, Carly Simon, and Whoopi Goldberg all participated in the fast.

Death

César Chávez passed away at age 66 on April 23, 1993. After a lifetime of campaigning, he died in his sleep of natural causes in San Luis, Arizona. He lay in state at UFW headquarters in The Forty Acres, where tens of thousands of people visited him before his funeral in Delano. At his funeral, 120 pallbearers carried his coffin, and he was buried in a private ceremony in Nuestra Señora Reina de la Paz (La Paz), Keene, California.

Legacy

A year after his death, César Chávez was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Bill Clinton in 1994, which his family received.

On October 8, 2012, President Barack Obama established the César E. Chávez National Monument in Keene, California. Inspired by his words, Obama’s successful 2008 presidential campaign slogan, “Yes, we can,” was an adaptation of Chávez’s “¡Sí, se puede!”. In addition, he continued to honor Chávez by proclaiming his birthday, March 31, as César Chávez Day – a U.S. federal commemorative holiday in 2014. The day is observed by Arizona, California, Colorado, Minnesota, Texas, Utah, Washington, and Wisconsin.

How did César Chávez change the world?

As a result of César Chávez’s activism, the world became a much safer place for migrant workers everywhere. He fought exploitative employers and successfully won without resorting to violent tactics. His success stories have inspired people worldwide, from children to workers and even U.S. presidents!

Africa is the second largest continent in the world, after Asia. Africa spans both hemispheres, meaning that the top part is in the Northern Hemisphere, and the bottom is in the Southern Hemisphere. The weather in Africa varies a lot because the continent is so large! Each region has a different climate, and the weather changes from country to country. Read on to learn more about the climate differences between African regions.

What is the weather like in North Africa?

North Africa is very hot, with a desert climate and little rain. Although temperatures are generally very high, they can drop below freezing in the mountains and the Sahara desert when nighttime comes. The Sahara desert dominates the climate of North Africa.

What is the weather like in Equatorial / Central Africa?

Equatorial Africa / Central Africa has a monsoon climate with high temperatures and humidity. Heavy seasonal rains are shared here. East Africa has separate dry and rainy seasons. Individual dry and rainy seasons happen in most countries south of the Sahara Desert instead of Europe and the US’s traditional spring, summer, autumn, and winter.

What is the weather like in Southern Africa?

The weather in Southern Africa varies more than its northern neighbors, with the temperature changing considerably throughout the year. This is a vast region, so it has a diverse climate. Winters in South Africa are cold and windy with harsh winds, and summers are warmer but with heavy rains. In addition, the seasons are reversed from what we are used to in the Northern Hemisphere because summer lasts from November to January, and winter runs from June to August.

Weather in different countries in Africa:

Morocco

Located in the north of Africa, Morocco has a seasonal pattern similar to other Northern Hemisphere countries. Summer is hot, with temperatures often exceeding 40 degrees Celsius. The winters are generally cold and wet.

Uganda

Uganda is in eastern-central Africa and has a tropical, consistently warm climate. The mountains can get extremely cold, though! For example, the top of the volcanic mountain Mount Elgon is usually covered in snow. There is a rainy season from March to May and October to November. Temperatures do generally not exceed 29 degrees Celsius.

Kenya

Kenya is in eastern-central Africa, next to Uganda. The monsoon winds and rainy seasons are the main features of the weather in Kenya, with the warmest temperatures along the coast. There are two rainy seasons: one is from April to June, and the other is from November to December. Summer is the country’s hottest period, from December to March.

Egypt

Egypt is located at the very top of Africa, on the Eastern corner of the continent. Egypt has three types of climate: a Mediterranean climate on the northern coast, a desert climate in the country’s center, and a milder desert climate on the east coast, next to the Red Sea. In the capital, Cairo, the summers are long, hot, and humid, and the winters are mild.

Namibia

A country in the southwest of Africa, Namibia has a hot desert climate. It is dry, warm, and sunny throughout the year, and there is not a lot of rain. When it does rain, it happens in summer, which is from December to March. Winter is more relaxed and occurs from June to August.

Rwanda

Rwanda, a small country south of Uganda, has very little difference between seasons due to its high elevation. This country has a chilly climate with a dry season from June to September and two rainy seasons, from March to May and October to November.

A character is someone in a story – a human, a fantastical or mythical creature. They could even be talking animals. Characters have character traits that define them and influence how they act in the story.

What are the different types of characters?

• Protagonist – The protagonist is the main character in a story and the person that the story is written about. The writer usually develops the plot around the protagonist. So, the story may revolve around something the protagonist wants to achieve or a problem they need to solve.
• Antagonist – This is a person that opposes or fights against another character (usually the protagonist). You might also know them by the term villain.
• Love Interest – A person whose primary role in the story is to fall in love with the protagonist.
• Foil – A character who contrasts with another character (usually the protagonist) to highlight their qualities or progress the plot.
• Supporting Characters – the supporting characters can be anyone who isn’t the protagonist, antagonist, love interest, or foil. These might be the protagonist’s friends, family, or people they meet.

What role do characters play in a story?

Characters create the action, so they hugely impact the story. Without feelings, there would be no story at all! The plot depends on what the characters want to do, how they do it, and how they react to new situations.

The protagonist and antagonist have the most significant influence on the story’s progression. The story’s plot usually revolves around the protagonist. So, the plot will depend on the protagonist’s actions, where they’re going, and their end goal.

The antagonist’s goal is generally to thwart the protagonist’s plans (or vice versa). In this way, they’re linked. The protagonist and antagonist’s actions drive the story forward.

Characters also help us to feel connected to the story. They should be authentic and relatable – someone we believe we could meet in real life. This makes the reader more invested in the story and its outcome, especially if something dramatic happens to the characters.

Well-written characters should make the reader happy when the character is cheerful and sad when the character is sad. Think back to the stories you’ve read. Have you ever rooted for a character?

Character Examples

Let’s take a look at some character examples to understand them further. We’ll use Alice in Wonderland as the story example.

Protagonist – Alice is the protagonist of Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland. She’s curious and wants to explore the wonderful world she’s just discovered down the rabbit hole.

Antagonist – The Queen of Hearts is the antagonist of the story. A brutal and oppressive tyrant, she rules Wonderland. She believes Alice is guilty of stealing her tarts and demands she be beheaded.

Foil – Alice’s older sister is her foil. Where Alice has her head in the clouds and is always daydreaming, her older sister is shown to be grown-up and realistic.

Supporting Characters – Alice meets many supporting characters during her travels in Wonderland. A few examples include the following:

• the White Rabbit
• the Cheshire Cat
• the Caterpillar
• the Mad Hatter
• the Mock Turtle

How to Write a Character Poem

Character poems, also known as persona poetry, are poems where the poets take on the roles of people other than themselves. They write in the first or third person, sharing the character’s private thoughts.

Learning how to write a character poem is a fun and creative way to think in someone else’s shoes. In addition, it can help you pull together your thoughts and ideas for character description.

The first step to writing any poem is to decide what form your poem will take – are you interested in acrostic, haiku, or rhyme? Manipulating the form of a poem’s structure can help to mirror the character’s circumstances or personality. Commonly, character poems use free verse, as poets can create unique voices free from form.

Once you’ve decided on the form of your poem, you can begin to think about how to write a character poem.

1. Persona

Think of this as an invitation to a fancy dress party. Ask yourself, who are you going to go as? The word ‘persona’ comes from the Greek word for ‘mask.’ So, you might like to think of character poems as wearing a mask and taking on someone else’s identity.

2. Voice

Channel the voice of the character you’ve planned. Think about their voice and how they react to specific experiences. How do they speak, and what kind of language do they use?

3. Significance

Character poems can be compelling, stirring up many emotions in people! To bring your character poem to life, it’s essential to consider the poem’s significance and what message you want to share with your readers.

Through phonics, children will learn that every word can be broken down into its sounds and that these sounds can be represented in writing using symbols. They’ll gradually learn all of the phonic sounds of letters to achieve reading and writing fluency.

But while phonics is a great system, the different phases can be tricky to understand at first. Fortunately, all of the phonics phases will be explained throughout this guide.

Phonics Phases explained:

Having the six phonics phases explained makes it much easier to get an overview of the program. You’ll be able to see when children learn the phonemes and phonic sounds of letters and skills like segment and blend. So, without further ado, let’s look at phonics Phase 1!

Phase 1 Phonics

The first phase of phonics teaching focuses primarily on teaching children how to recognize certain sounds and some simple words. This helps to improve children’s awareness of the sounds around them. It also lays essential foundations for the phonics work that will follow in later phases, which includes learning the phonic sounds of letters, graphemes, and blending.

Phase 1 phonics involves teaching children about:

• Environmental Sounds
• Instrumental Sounds
• Body Percussion
• Rhythm and Rhyme
• Alliteration
• Voice Sounds
• Oral Blending and Segmenting

Phase 2 Phonics

While Phase 1 lays the critical foundation for children’s phonics education, later phases focus more on the sounds that letters symbolize – otherwise known as phonemes. In total, there are 44 different phonemes used in the English language!

Phonemes can be made up of one or two letters, and in Phase 2 of teaching phonics, the focus is placed on the most common single-letter sounds. Learning these phonics sounds is done by breaking them down into smaller groups, so children don’t get overwhelmed with too much information.

In Phase 2, children will learn 23 phonic sounds of letters, arranged into five sets. Each week of teaching focuses on one specific group of sounds. These sounds are:

As they learn phonics sounds, pupils will also learn and spell some simple VC (vowel-consonant) and CVC (consonant-vowel-consonant) words. Alongside this, there is also a group of words that need to be learned by recognition – these are known as tricky words, and they include terms such as ‘no,’ ‘the,’ and ‘go.’

Phase 3 Phonics

Now that we’ve explained the first two phonics phases let’s advance to Phase 3. This phase involves learning about the rest of the phonemes and phonic sounds of letters that weren’t covered in Phase 2 – including two-letter sounds and more complex phonemes such as digraphs and trigraphs. As well as learning phonics sounds, children will come across a new set of twelve tricky words that need to be understood, including ‘my,’ ‘they,’ and ‘me.’

By the end of Phase 3, children should be able to recognize all 26 letters and recall them by name. They should also be able to blend and read CVC words made up of the graphemes they’ve learned and correctly draw the letters when copying from an image.

Phase 4 Phonics

By Phase 4, children should be confident in phoneme recognition. As such, they will no longer be learning phonics sounds. Instead, the main focus at this stage is for children to become more confident using the phonemes they’ve already learned.

In Phase 4, children will learn to recognize sets of adjacent consonants (called consonant clusters). They should also be able to write and say words without sounding out each phoneme individually. But, again, there’s another set of tricky words to learn, too, including terms such as ‘some,’ ‘come,’ and ‘were.’

Phase 5 Phonics

In Phase 5, a new selection of graphemes and phonemes is introduced to your children. This new set of phonemes includes alternate spellings and vowel combinations that create different sounds to what children may expect from their earlier knowledge.

Phase 6 Phonics

Now that we’ve explained the other phonics phases, the last one to look at is Phase 6.

By the beginning of Phase 6, children will have learned the majority of grapheme-phoneme correspondences, allowing them to pronounce and read familiar words. They’ll also be able to sight-read many words and recognize the tricky words they’ve learned. When children come across an unfamiliar word, they’ll be able to try and pronounce it using skills such as sounding out and blending.

In this phase, the focus is placed on becoming more confident in reading and spelling, and activities encouraging these skills are hugely important. From here on, children should feel confident in their early-reading abilities and be able to progress onto more advanced reading schemes when they are ready.

Phonics letters and sounds order by year

Since we’ve seen a breakdown of all six phonics phases, you may wonder how they correspond to the school years and what phonic sounds of letters children will learn each year. This simple year-by-year teaching schedule shows when each phase happens, so you can get an idea of when kids will be learning phonics sounds:

• In Reception, the main focus of early reading and phonics teaching is teaching children the phonic sounds of letters, known as phonemes, and at least one grapheme to represent each of them.
• Throughout year 1, when children have learned the phonic sounds of letters, the focus of teaching shifts towards exploring digraphs and trigraphs (groups of 2 and 3 letters that represent a single phoneme) and that multiple different graphemes can represent a single phoneme.
• In year 2, more importance is placed on learning spelling rules and reading. This includes studying prefixes and suffixes and some more complicated topics such as silent letters and complex word endings.

How do you teach phonics sounds?

Since we know a fair bit about the phonics phases, it’s time to think about how to help pupils who are learning phonics sounds.

Learning phonics sounds, graphemes, spelling rules, and skills such as blending can be tricky for young learners, and phonics might not always seem like the most engaging subject. However, you can do plenty of simple, fun, and practical activities with your learners to teach them the phonics sounds of letters and build up their phonics skills, no matter their stage. Once you’ve read our guide and have seen each of the phonics phases explained, you could give some of these a try:

• The alphabet song: Many children learn letters and the order of the alphabet using an alphabet song. However, these songs can also be essential to teach phonemes (letter sounds) to pronounce and sound out each letter of the alphabet.
• Play I spy: Everyone knows the classic car and travel game ‘I spy with my little eye.’ Now it’s time for you to bring ‘I spy’ out of the car and into the classroom with our phonics skills building ‘I spy’ resources and games. You can choose objects around the room featuring the phonemes and graphemes you are trying to teach. This can help your students to form connections between things and their meanings.
• Use games and keep your lessons fun: Like with most topics, making your lessons fun will keep children engaged and, in turn, make them more likely to remember what they’ve learned!
• Picture matching activities: Some students will learn best with visual prompts, so why not try matching activities where children are given short words and pictures to match up to test their word recognition, spelling, and reading comprehension skills? It’s a great way to improve children’s recognition of common words and build their vocabularies.

Experimental error is the difference between a measured value and its actual value. In other words, inaccuracies stop us from seeing a correct measurement.

Experimental error is prevalent and is, to some degree, inherent in every measurement. However, it is not usually seen as a ‘mistake’ in the traditional sense because a degree of error is perceived as part and parcel of the scientific process.

However, by accepting and understanding how experimental error can impact every scientific procedure, scientists can reduce inaccuracy and acquire results closer to the truth.

Here are why this might occur in an experiment, and these can be divided into subcategories: systematic errors, random errors, and blunders.

Systematic errors

These errors tend to be caused by the process, and their reason can usually be identified. Here are four significant types of systematic errors:

1. Instrumental – When the tool you are measuring provides incorrect results, e.g., the fluid in a thermometer does not correctly represent the water temperature.
2. Observational – When the measurement is consistently misread, e.g., a researcher records the water in a measuring cup from above, and the angle obscures the actual height of the water in the cup.
3. Environmental – When the lab’s surroundings unintentionally influence the test results, e.g., the heat in the laboratory is always too high. It causes water to evaporate from a Petri dish at a higher-than-normal rate.
4. Theoretical – When the model used to calculate data creates inaccurate results, e.g., when a formula for working out gravity’s influence on acceleration is used. Still, the procedure does not factor in the effect of air resistance on acceleration.

These errors are caused by unforeseeable and unknown factors surrounding the experiment. They often result in random fluctuations in data sets but can be identified or estimated through statistical analysis.

1. Observational – When a researcher randomly takes an inaccurate reading, e.g., the researcher notes the volume of liquid to the minor division but occasionally determines the wrong number of milliliters.
2. Environmental – When there are unforeseeable conditions surrounding the experiment, e.g., it’s a very wet day, affecting the humidity in the lab where an investigation with organic materials is being conducted.

Blunders

These mistakes happen so infrequently that they are not considered random errors. However, it will usually be pretty evident in a data set because it will appear as a distinct anomaly.

1. A Blunder – An outright mistake, e.g., a scientist not sealing the lid of a container properly and allowing gas to escape.

Science fiction, also often known as ‘sci-fi,’ is a genre of literature that is imaginative and based on science. It relies heavily on scientific facts, theories, and principles as support for its settings, characters, themes, and plot. Many of the storylines and plots within science fiction are possible or plausible according to science.

Science fiction is usually futuristic and often presents alternative ways of life and living made possible by technological change. Science-fiction novels are similar to fantasy in that they imagine alternative worlds outside the realms of our natural world.

What are the five elements of science-fiction story writing?

Like other forms of fiction writing, science fiction contains the usual novel elements. These include a specific setting, character development, plot (central conflict, complications, pivotal events, resolution), themes, and structure.

1. Setting

The setting is the context in which a story or scene occurs and comprises the time, place, and social environment. Therefore, it’s essential to create a background in your account, so your readers can visualize and experience; for example, science-fiction settings tend to include space travel, new galaxies, or futuristic times.

2. Character

A character is a person in a story – a human, a fantasy character, a mythical character, or even an animal. Science fiction is no exception to this element of fiction writing, and the characters in these stories often include aliens, time travelers, and heroic adventurers.

3. Plot

The plot is the main event or events of a play, novel, film, or similar work, devised and presented by the writer as a complementary sequence. The plot of science fiction usually centers around technological discoveries, time travel, and alien invasions.

4. Themes

The theme is the main idea or underlying meaning a writer explores in a story. Science fiction’s most common themes include space travel, time travel, utopias and dystopias, and encounters with alien life forms.

5. Structure

A structure is the important events of a story and how its plot unfolds. Science-fiction stories are usually full of action, adventure, and plot twists that make up the structure.

What are some main components of science-fiction novels?

Here are some of the main features of science-fiction novels:

• time travel;
• teleportation;
• mind control, telepathy, and telekinesis;
• alien life forms, and mutants;
• space travel and exploration;
• parallel universes.

Can you think of any novels you’ve read recently that have any of these features?

Famous Science-Fiction Novels and Writers

Here are some famous science-fiction novels you might have heard of or wanted to check out. These novels have been crucial in defining the question ‘what is science fiction?’.

• Frankenstein by Mary Shelley. Frankenstein tells the story of a gifted scientist called Frankenstein who creates a monster. However, the beast is not the perfect specimen that he imagined it to be – it turns out to be a hideous creature that humanity and Frankenstein himself reject.
• The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins. The Hunger Games depicts a story of a post-apocalyptic nation called Panem in North America. The Capitol runs it that exercises political control over the rest of the country.
• Ready Player One by Ernest Cline. This story is set in 2045 and follows Wade Watts on his search for an Easter egg in a worldwide virtual reality game. The discovery of this leads him to inherit the game creator’s fortune.

Where did science fiction originate from?

The exact origins and definitions of science fiction have been widely disputed, but the term ‘science fiction’ was thought to have been invented in the 1920s by one of the first advocates for the genre, Hugo Gernsback.

The World Science-Fiction Society held annual awards for outstanding science fiction beginning in 1953. These were named after Gernsback and celebrate the achievements of the world’s top science-fiction writers, editors, illustrators, and films.

Why is science fiction necessary?

The science-fiction genre is essential, and it’s trendy, too. Science fiction often allows people to turn scientific theories into full stories about what is possible and imaginable. People use scientific facts to do things like:

• suggest what could happen in the future;
• explore what could happen if certain events or circumstances came to be;
• present future consequences of technological and scientific advancements and innovation.

How to Start a Science-Fiction Story

Starting a story in a new genre can be tricky, so how can you learn to create a science-fiction novel with your kids? Twinkl is here to help. Check out a few of our pointers, tips, and tricks to help you start your own science-fiction story:

• Keep it short

For children writing their first stories, keeping them short can be the best way to perfect the key components of storytelling. So why not try a flash fiction story?

• Find your hook

Every great story needs a great opening line to hook your reader. A firm beginning in a science-fiction story will make the readers want to know more.

• Plan only one or two exciting characters

Interesting characters are one of the essential parts of any story. However, too many characters will make the story too complex, and the readers won’t be able to tell them apart.

• Pick a common science-fiction theme or trope

Most science-fiction stories explore themes such as technology, aliens, adventure, and space. Picking a common trope or theme from science fiction can help children focus on their accounts. Try these common themes and tropes from science-fiction stories:

• space exploration/adventure;
• advanced technology that shows a glimpse of the future;
• the fate of the world is in the balance;
• aliens invade Earth.

Hard Science-Fiction Novels vs. Soft Science-Fiction Novels

Science fiction is divided into two broad categories: hard sci-fi and soft sci-fi. These terms are vague and flexible, but they give readers a good idea of what to expect from the novel before reading it. Here is the difference between these two types of sci-fi books:

• Complex sci-fi novels are based on scientific facts. ‘hard’ natural sciences inspire them, like chemistry, physics, and astronomy.
• Soft sci-fi novels can be either inaccurate or inspired by ‘soft’ social sciences like psychology, anthropology, and sociology.

Mini Science-Fiction Quiz Questions

Try these science-fiction quiz questions to see how well you can identify whether a text is science fiction. Each question features a made-up story summary, and you must guess whether it would fit in the science-fiction or another genre. Try and answer all of these questions before scrolling down to find the answers!

1. A story about an alien teenager growing up on Mars while navigating his way through teenage life.
2. A story about a detective who has to follow a series of clues to catch a criminal.
3. A story about a princess who decides she doesn’t want to be a princess anymore, so she gives up her position, joins a regular school, and tries to hide her past.
4. A story about a group of people whose flight takes a wrong turn and sends them to another planet.

Did you manage to answer all the questions? Try rereading this page. You might find the answers you’re looking for.

Here’s the correct answer for each question:

1. This story would be a piece of science fiction.
2. This story is not a piece of science fiction – it falls into the detective and crime fiction genre.
3. This story would be a piece of teen fiction or young adult fiction.
4. This story would be a piece of science fiction.

Science-Fiction Story Topics

If you want your pupils to write their own science-fiction stories, you’ll want to look at some of these topics. These ideas can inspire your pupils to write out-of-this-world stories. Encourage your pupils to use figurative language and ambitious vocabulary while they write!

Science-Fiction Story Topics about Aliens

• A mysterious light appears in your garden at night. You go outside to investigate it, and you find a spaceship. What does it look like? Will you go inside?
• You are an alien flying through space. Suddenly, your spaceship starts to malfunction. You need to make a crash landing! Which planet will you land on? What will you find there?
• You are an astronaut on a mission to explore space. You’ve recently discovered a new planet and species – write a report about what you’ve found.
• Alien life has been discovered, and they want to communicate with the people of planet Earth. Are they friendly, or do they have something sinister up their sleeve?
• One day, an alien ship crashes into your house. The foreign needs help to get back on its feet. What do you do to enable it? How does it adjust to life on Earth?

Science-Fiction Story Topics About Robots

• Robots are now considered equal to humans – they’re even made to go to school! One of your new classmates is a robot. How do you get on?
• You enter a science competition and decide to make a robot. But as things progress, the robot starts to take on a mind of its own.
• Ten thousand years into the future, only robots have survived on Earth. So what does their society look like? How are they different from humans?
• Now that technology has advanced, you can transfer your brain into a robot at the end of your life. Would you choose to do it? Why or why not?
• Robots have now taken up all the positions of power on Earth – it’s thought that their emotions won’t influence their decisions. What is the robot Prime Minister like?