Teaching Strategies, Tactics, and Methods

What is a fronted adverbial?

Let’s answer ‘what is a fronted adverbial?’ by breaking down the grammar behind it.

A fronted adverbial is a word (or a phrase for adverbial phrases) used for the same reason as adverbs to modify a specific verb or clause. They are so similar that many adverbs can be used as fronted adverbials. Many other word types and clauses can also be used as a fronted adverbial. For example:

• prepositional phrases
• subordinate clauses

Fronted adverbials can help young learners create vital pieces of descriptive writing. They can set the scene at the start of a chapter or paragraph. They’re also crucial for describing where, when, and how the action occurred.

So, what is a fronted adverbial? They are the words or phrases found at the start of a sentence that is used to describe the action that follows.

What are Fronted Adverbials used for:

Fronted adverbials are most commonly used to describe specific characteristics or actions. Here are a few sentences where you can see them in action:

• The time something happens – Darius crept into the beast’s cave before sunrise.
• The frequency that something happens – Darius could hear the beast’s ferocious snore every so often.
• The place something happens – The terrifying creature began to stir at the back of the cave.
• The manner something happens – As quick as a flash, Darius bounded behind a nearby rock.
• The possibility (how likely) something will happen – Almost certainly, the deadly beast was nearing closer.

List of Fronted Adverbials:

Fronted Adverbial:	How to use it in a sentence:
Afterward	Afterward, we all had ice cream.
Tomorrow	Tomorrow, I think I’ll take the dog for a walk.
Once	Once, it snowed so much that we couldn’t go to school.
Sometimes	Sometimes, I like to have a bath instead of a shower.
Upstairs	Upstairs, there was an enormous bedroom.
Sadly	Sadly, I couldn’t find my umbrella this morning.
Perhaps	Perhaps, the rain would stop soon.
As fast as she could	As fast as she could, Winnie dashed across the muddy field.
Quite understandably	Quite understandably, Lila wasn’t very impressed.
In the distance	In the distance, Jess called out as loud as she could.
Back at the house	Back at the house, Oscar was sleeping soundly.
Without warning	Without warning, Maha started singing and dancing.
In the blink of an eye	In the blink of an eye, everything was back to normal again.

When to use Fronted Adverbials in your writing:

Adding description

Fronted Adverbials are brilliant when you want to make your writing more descriptive and precise. They are best used when the specific place, time, or manner in which an action took place might be of interest or importance to the reader.

Creative writing can give clues about a character’s feelings or personality. Look at how the addition of a fronted adverbial changes our perception of the main clause ‘the teacher looked at Clare’s homework:

• Joyfully, the teacher looked at Clare’s homework.
• With a look of disdain, the teacher looked at Clare’s homework.

In this example, the fronted adverbial (highlighted in bold) completely changes the reader’s perception and understanding of both the subject (the teacher) and the object (Clare’s homework) of the sentence; this shows how they can be used to add detail and intrigue to a piece of writing quickly.

Improving the flow and tone of your writing

Sometimes using too many short, simple sentences can make a piece of writing feel awkward or clunky. Similarly, sentences with too many connectives like ‘and’ or ‘but’ can make a sentence seem too wordy. Here’s an example:

Jim and his dog went to the park. They played fetch. Jim laughed out loud and threw the ball as far as he could.

Luckily, you can use fronted adverbials to make sentences flow together more fluidly while keeping your sentences short and easy to follow. For example, take a look at what the above sentences could look like if they used them too:

At the park, Jim and his dog played fetch. Then, laughing out loud, Jim threw the ball as far as he could.

Notice how the sentences seem to flow more naturally?; this is because fronted adverbials do a better job mimicking how we speak. You probably use plenty of them in your speech without even realizing it!

Building tension and suspense in your writing

Suspense and horror writers often love fronted adverbials because they build suspense by putting the verb toward the end of a sentence, making the reader wait to find out the action being described. They can also add atmospheric and spooky details to a sentence. Here are a few sentences where you can see them in action.

• As the wind howled outside, the door slammed shut behind them.
• Without a sound, Nadine started her descent into the dark cellar.
• Mysteriously, the painting that had been on the wall yesterday was now gone.

If you’re teaching a primary school class how to use this technique in their writing, you could prompt your students to use them to write a short horror or suspense story. It is fun to get them engaged and excited about the topic while also getting them to think about how different fiction genres use different writing styles.

1. George Washington is the only United States president with a state named after him. Washington was granted statehood in 1889, long after his death. Its name was chosen to honor his achievements!
2. When Washington held office, the capital of the United States was temporarily founded in New York City, then later Philadelphia.
3. Many counties, streets, towns, bridges, parks, schools, and colleges are named after George Washington. These can be found all over the United States. So keep your eyes peeled for a Washington Street near you!
4. George Washington was a big fan of animals. The names of some of his hunting dogs included Sweet Lips, Venus, Trulove, and Drunkard.
5. Some people think that George Washington’s iconic white hair was a wig. But it’s his hair – he just powdered it!
6. Washington’s teeth were broken and damaged from cracking walnuts, so he wore dentures. Contrary to popular belief, these were not made out of wood. Instead, his dentures were made from gold, ivory, lead, and human teeth pulled from enslaved people.
7. George Washington owned a distillery and made gallons of whiskey every year. He was also involved in putting down the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794. Farmers in Pennsylvania stopped paying the tax on whiskey, and Washington sent forces to stop them.
8. The tale of George Washington chopping down a cherry tree is thought to be a myth nowadays. Although it was told in a written biography, no eyewitnesses confirmed it. But it’s still a fun story!
9. As the president of the United States, George Washington’s salary was 2% of the country’s total budget.
10. Over his life, George Washington wrote over 18,000 letters. Some estimates go as high as 20,000; this would amount to several daily letters for most of his life.

What is an acute angle?

The acute angle is small, less than 90˚ (degrees). It is one of many primary types of angles, along with a right angle (equal to 90˚), an obtuse angle (between 90˚ and 180˚), and a reflex angle, which measures more than 180˚ but less than 360˚.

You can remember the definition of an acute angle by thinking of this mnemonic: an acute angle is small.

What is an angle?

Firstly, what is an angle? We have to understand angles before we can start thinking about acute angles.

In geometry, an angle can be defined as the figure formed by two rays meeting at a common endpoint. The two rays — lines — that meet at the endpoint are called the ‘arms of the angle.’ An angle measures a turn, calculated in degrees or °. There are 360° in a complete turn. The endpoint is also known as the vertex.

You find out the size of an angle using a protractor, which is a bit like a ruler. It is a semicircular piece of flat, transparent plastic with lines marked on it. Then, you can line up the lines with an angle to measure the degrees of the angle.

What are the five types of angles?

A few different types of angles vary in size and measurement. Therefore, children need to learn about the other angles.

Acute angles are angles of measurement less than 90˚.

Obtuse angles are greater than 90° but less than 180°.

Reflex angles are greater than 180°.

Right angles are exactly 90˚ in measurement.

Straight angles are 180° exactly, so they are a straight line.

Complete angles are a whole angle, exactly 360˚ in measurement, and so are a circle.

Adaptation is the process of evolution where an animal or plant becomes better suited to its habitat. There are many examples of physiological processes and special functions that animals and plants use to thrive.

There are three forms of adaptation in the animal and plant kingdom.

These changes could be physiological – causing their internal processes to change and adapt to cope with their environment. Structural- in which a feature of their physical body changes, usually over millions of years. Or behavioral – in which a response causes an animal or plant to change how it responds to its habitat.

Behavioral adaptations– an organism’s actions to survive in a specific habitat or environment.

Examples of behavioral adaptations:

• Bears hibernate in the winter to conserve energy as there is less food.
• Dogs pant to help themselves cool down.

Structural adaptations– physical attributes that enable an organism to survive in its unique habitat.

Examples of structural adaptations:

• Seals and penguins develop fat to help them preserve heat in freezing temperatures.
• Reptiles like frogs and chameleons have long sticky tongues to grab and stick to prey.

Examples of plants and animals and their specific physiological adaptations:

• Snakes and spiders produce venom to paralyze their prey and make them easier to digest.
• Many fish and reptiles are cold-blooded to cope with living in a cold-water environment.
• Plants release nectar to attract bees and insects that help them to spread pollen.

Extreme environments

Every part of our planet has an ecosystem of life uniquely and physiologically adapted to live in that specific habitat and may not survive anywhere else. A fish would not be able to stay in the desert because it is too hot and dry for such a creature that needs water to live. A polar bear would not survive in the jungle because it would be too hot and not camouflaged from prey. Equally, a lion would suddenly be upset to find itself in the snowy Arctic. It would be like you or me turning up to the North Pole in sunglasses and a swimsuit – we would be freezing! Each animal has unique attributes that are ideally suited to its place.

Surviving in the tundra

Plants

1. Growing smaller leaves- smaller leaves have less surface area, meaning the plant loses less heat, water, and energy through its leaves.
2. Growing low to the ground- growing closer to the ground protects a plant from solid winds often found in the Arctic Tundra climate.
3. Quick blooming- small flowers bloom quickly to soak up as much light as possible in the 24-hour summer.

Animals

1. Hibernation– hibernation is considered part of the behavioral process, though it is also a part of physiological adaptation. For example, animals consume large amounts of food before they hibernate, which is then converted to fat and stored in the body; this slows down their metabolisms and enables them to sleep for long periods at very cool temperatures.
2. Molting– large animals like polar bears need to stay warm in the winter, but their thick fur coats become too hot for the summer. Molting is a physiological process that helps them cool down and shed heavy surplus fur to hunt faster and more efficiently in the summer when there is less ice. Molting is a feature of many animals; cats and dogs also molt to cool down similarly.
3. Biological Anti-freeze– many insects can create their anti-freeze, a naturally forming anticoagulant in their blood, to prevent them from becoming miniature ice sculptures. Some plant species also have a natural chemical antifreeze ability. The Alaskan Wood Frog is a particularly fascinating example; it can literally ‘freeze’ itself over winter and then thaw out and come back to life in spring – does anyone think it should be renamed the zombie frog?

Surviving in the desert

Plants

1. Water storage– cactuses absorb water to enjoy the longevity of life in a barren land where it rarely rains, which means they can soak up as much as possible on the rare occasion a storm greets the sand.

Animals

1. Storing fat– camels store fat reserves in their humps to deal with the lack of water in the dry, sandy desert; this is then converted into food and water sources in extreme circumstances. Kangaroo rats are specialized in that they never have to drink water; they absorb moisture from the seeds they eat.
2. Specialized digestive systems– desert critters have very special stomachs that enable them to easily consume the scarce food supply in the desert. For example, meerkats can consume scorpions whole without being poisoned by their venom, but if they get a sting on the body, it might spell disaster.
3. Camouflage– desert dwellers are similar to tundra animals as they also use camouflage for physiological survival. Some species can change the color of their skin or fur to match the environment in the changing seasons. For example, an addax’s coat is white in the summer to reflect heat, but it changes to a dull brown in the winter to absorb heat and keep warm.

Surviving in the ocean

Plants

1. Chemical defenses– sea stars secrete chemicals from their skin to prevent them from being eaten by a predator.

Animals

1. Breathing– large mammals like whales live in the ocean full time, but they need to breathe air, so they have become very adept at holding their breath for long periods underwater.
2. Chemical defenses -sea creatures such as octopuses and squid have a marvelous chemical defense mechanism to warn off predators. If something comes along and decides they look like a tasty dinner, they get a face full of ink and often retreat as hastily as they came.
3. Warm-blood-migrating animals such as whales and dolphins must deal with changing temperatures in the water they travel through. Therefore, they are endothermic, or ‘warm-blooded,’ which helps them regulate their temperature depending on the surrounding water.

What is a curriculum?

A curriculum is a collection of lessons and assessments taught by a teacher in an educational institution. Or, to put it another way, it describes the totality of experiences a student will have when taught in an institution by a teacher.

Why the curriculum is important

A curriculum is essential because it imposes some order onto what is taught in an educational institution. It communicates clear expectations for teachers and students about what ought to be achieved by the end point of the course.

Having a curriculum allows students to pass between institutions so they can progress and get further qualifications. At the primary and secondary school levels, many students will move between schools; this is why a curriculum is essential. It means that schools are standardized and students will not suffer or miss out on teaching just because they move from one school to another.

What’s more, it sets a goal for all students to reach at the end of the primary school years. Moreover, all primary schools follow a curriculum, so they are prepared to the same level when they start studying at the secondary school level.

What are the different types of the curriculum?

There are several different ways to design a curriculum. These include a subject-centered design, which can be found in most schools across the UK; this will involve following a particular subject or discipline, such as mathematics and biology, and ensuring that a core set of knowledge is communicated to students throughout the course.

There is also a learner-centered or problem-centered curriculum design, which emphasizes what the students wish to learn or how they might solve a problem.

The subject of English in the UK follows a spiral curriculum design where each topic is covered several times throughout the student’s career, at a greater depth each time. Allowing students to become familiar with certain concepts at a young age and build on them each time they encounter them later.

Air resistance is a kind of friction (a force that opposes motion) that occurs between air and another object. It is the force that the object experiences as it passes through the air. Air resistance and gravity are the two fixed forces of nature that move on any object on Earth.

What is Air Resistance for Kids?

Air resistance, also known as drag, is friction (a force that opposes motion) between air and another object. It is the force that the object experiences as it passes through the air. Air resistance and gravity are the two fixed forces of nature that move on any object on Earth.

For example, when a plane flies through the air, the air particles press against it, making it harder for the aircraft to move.

When you see a feather fall, air resistance significantly affects it because it has lots of surface area for the air to contact with and lacks the weight to overcome the air resistance.

Air resistance for kids affects many parts of the world around us! From the wind that slows us while we’re riding bikes or driving in cars to how our papers flutter and drift when they fall to the floor, air resistance is a part of life. If we study this phenomenon, we’ll better know how it works!

What is Friction

Before we dive deeper into air resistance, we must understand the general concept on which air resistance is based! Friction is a force that opposes motion. It happens when two objects make contact, creating a resistance of motion.

For example, if you try to slide a toy car across a smooth piece of wood, it will move quickly because the wheels are not generating much friction against the smooth surface. On the other hand, if you slide the same toy car across a thick carpet, you will need to push the car much more to make it move, stopping far more quickly. A consequence of increased friction.

Friction can be both good and bad for the objects involved; if the two objects are a glass of water on a table, their static friction is good because it stops the glass from sliding off the table. But, on the other hand, if the objects are your trainers and the ground causes them to wear out, that isn’t good!

Here are a few other examples:

Examples of Friction

There are positive and negative examples of friction that can happen to us in our daily lives. Here are those examples!

Positive examples of friction

• Putting our foot down to slow down a scooter or bike.
• Rubbing your hands to warm up in winter creates the warmth we are all familiar with!
• Writing and drawing by causing the pencil to generate friction against the paper.

Negative examples of friction

• When we fall on the ground and scrape our knees, our skin creates friction on the floor.
• Air resistance slows down how far you can kick a ball.
• Friction can wear away the soles of our shoes, making them eventually unusable!

There are also two types of friction – static and kinetic. Static friction happens when two objects aren’t moving, and kinetic friction happens between two things that are. An example of static friction is when you are walking– when your feet settle against the ground and slide, that second of sliding is static friction! Another more accessible example is when you push a piece of furniture. An example of kinetic friction would be anything with wheels sliding across the ground, like a car or roller skates!

Who Discovered Air Resistance?

We all know air resistance has always existed, but the fact of the matter stands: who was the first person to point out this occurrence in our natural world? Well, the answer is much more straightforward than many may think! Air resistance was discovered by the famous and fabulous Italian scientist Galileo Galilei. Many call him the father of modern physics because of all his discoveries.

It’s said that around 1590, he went to the top of the Leaning Tower of Pisa, where he dropped many different objects. These were cannonballs, musket balls, wood, silver, and lots of other stuff I’m sure we all have lying around. When he dropped them, he ensured that one object was always heavier than the other but with the same size and shape. And he found they still hit the ground simultaneously, so heavier things wouldn’t fall faster than lighter ones.

He determined that gravity accelerates all things at the same rate and doesn’t matter their weight.

An early version of a parachute was found in an anonymous manuscript from the 1470s before Galileo started hurtling cannonballs off buildings. It wasn’t as good a design as parachutes are now, but it introduced the concept to artist-engineers of the times.

Then, a few years later, Leonardo da Vinci created an improved but improved design. Many credit him for falling using a ‘maximum drag decelerator’ (this would be a parachute).

Why not get your students to recreate Galileo’s experiment (probably without the cannonballs, but each to their own) so they can see the effect of gravity and air resistance for themselves? It would be a fun interactive activity for students to participate in that they’ll love and be beneficial for their learning. This way, they see the forces in action instead of just reading about them.

What Causes Air Resistance

Also known as ‘drag,’ air resistance is a force caused by air. The air particles hit the front of an object, causing it to slow down. The greater the surface area, the greater the number of air particles hitting the thing and the greater the overall resistance.

Two main things affect air resistance- the object’s speed and cross-sectional area. The faster an object goes, the more air resistance there’ll be. It’s the same for a large cross-sectional area; an increased area leads to increased air resistance.

What can be Affected by Air Resistance

Air resistance affects most of the world around us, but there are some undeniable examples that we can point out to show off exactly how air resistance works!

Examples of Air Resistance

Here are some examples of air resistance in everyday life.

• Wind. When the wind blows, it is sometimes difficult to walk through the air because the air resists your force and pushes you back against you.
• Parachute. When a skydiver jumps out of an airplane, they open a parachute. Air resistance causes them to parachute slowly to the ground.
• Bicycle. When you ride a fast bike, air resistance pushes you back.
• Airplane. When an aircraft is flying up in the air, the air particles hit the plane, making it more challenging to move through the air.
• Leaves. On a windy day, when you see leaves falling from a tree slowly, air resistance slows down their fall.
• Umbrellas. You know that annoying experience when it’s raining cats and dogs, and you put up your umbrella, but it’s tough to hold because of the wind? So what’s that, you say? So that’s air resistance, too? Yup.

Why not see if students can develop their examples of air resistance? A fun activity with them would be to list all the items they can think of that experience air resistance, then research each to discover how these items harness air resistance.

Air Resistance and Streamlining

Objects need to have a small surface area for things to move quickly and efficiently through air or water. Conversely, the bigger the surface area, the more excellent the resistance; objects must be streamlined to push against the air’s force.

Trains are designed to be streamlined so they can move quicker, getting you from one destination to the next! Even people can try and be simplified, like swimmers, for example. They maintain a streamlined shape during races to get through the water more quickly. But this is because of water rather than air resistance (hence, they are Can your students think of any more streamlined items to reduce air resistance?

One way of testing how streamlining works is to create paper airplanes. Get some pieces of paper, screw some up, turn some into planes, and then see which falls faster. Through this, you can see how having a streamlined shape affects how quickly you lose.

What are the Three Main Types of Air Resistance for Kids?

Air resistance, or drag, can be put into one of three categories; lift induced, parasitic, and wave. Each type of air resistance affects an object’s ability to stay up and the power it will need to keep it there.

• Lift-induced air resistance happens due to the creation of lift on a three-dimensional lifting body (wing or fuselage).
• Parasitic drag happens when a solid object moves through a fluid. This air resistance type comprises components like ‘form drag’ and ‘skin friction drag.’
• Wave drag occurs when an object scurries through a compressible fluid.

With these three types of drag, we can witness the different effects of air resistance and study the results to ensure we know how to best use air resistance to our advantage. It is how airplanes and other flying or driving crafts were created– by studying the three main types of air resistance to find the best to use!

5 Fun Facts about Air Resistance and Friction

• Because of air resistance, cyclists crouch low on their bikes to make them go faster! They also have streamlined cycling equipment so that air passes are more accessible, so it doesn’t slow them down.
• Because sports cars have a streamlined shape, they’ll go faster than other vehicles because they experience less air resistance.
• Because of air resistance, using a parachute slows your fall to around 12 mph, making a much safer landing.
• Friction can generate static electricity. You can see this when you rub a balloon against your head, and the friction causes your hair to stand up. Or you rub your feet along the carpet and give someone an electric shock.
• Due to air resistance, snowflakes that may weigh the same amount as a drop of water the same size fall slower because their shape is streamlined to allow them to glide down rather than fall.

Key Terms and Vocabulary About Air Resistance and Forces

Have a vocabulary quiz coming up in your science class? Here are some key terms and vocabulary words all about air resistance, streamlining, friction, and forces to help you study for that!

• Gravity – the force that brings things to the ground
• Air resistance – the friction between air and an object
• Water resistance – the friction between water and an object
• Friction – the resistance when two objects are rubbed together
• Galileo Galilei – the person who discovered air resistance
• Isaac Newton – the person who discovered gravity
• Acceleration – the rate that something increases in speed
• Kinetic – relating to, caused by, or producing motion
• Lubricant – a substance like oil or grease that, when on a surface, reduces friction
• Material – the substance used to create objects
• Motion – the act of moving
• Resistance – a force that opposes or slows down another force
• Streamlined – a shape designed to cause the least air resistance
• Surface area – a solid flat area

What is a clause?

A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb. Clauses are used to build sentences in English. There are many clauses, such as the main clause, relative clause, or a ‘how’ clause.

Clauses are made of even smaller units like words and phrases:

• Words: singular units of meaning, for example, car.
• Phrases: small groups of words that convey meaning, for example, the fast, blue car.

A clause contains a subject (the person or thing the sentence is about, which is usually the doer of the action) and a predicate (the verb/doing word).

For example:

• The fast, blue car drove down the road.

In this example, the subject of the clause is ‘the quick blue car,’ while ‘drove’ is the predicate or verb.

So, what’s the main clause?

The main clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb and can form a complete sentence.

What are Some Main Clause Sentence Examples?

Check out some simple main clause examples below:

• The lion roared at its prey.

Subject = the lion
Verb = roared

• The baby cried.

Subject = the baby
Verb = cried

• The teacher listened to the children.

Subject = the teacher
Verb = listened

• Jack kicked the ball.

Subject = Jack
Verb = kicked

• The spider spun a web.

Subject = the spider
Verb = spun

What is a simple sentence?

Main clauses can also be called simple sentences when independently used because they make one simple sentence.

What type of sentence contains two main clauses?

A sentence made up of two main clauses is a compound sentence. Compound sentences include two or more independent clauses combined with a comma, a semicolon, or a coordinating conjunction. For example:

• She finished her homework, so she turned on the TV.

How do you find the main clause in a sentence?

To find the main clause in a sentence, look for a subject and a verb. Once you’ve identified these, see if the clause would make sense as a stand-alone sentence. If this is the case, you’ve probably found the main clause. If not, keep looking!

We’ll use an example below to illustrate the point. Look at the following sentence:

• I walked past the park where I used to play.

This example is a complex sentence, as it features a main clause (I walked past the park) and a subordinate clause (where I used to play).

In the main clause, ‘I’ is the subject, and ‘walked’ is the verb. It contains both ingredients of the main clause and makes sense on its own. The two clauses are joined by ‘where,’ a connective.

Phonemes are the minor units of sound within a language. They are represented in writing by symbols known as graphemes, which help us distinguish one word from another.

Children will learn about phonemes during phonics, the study of sounds. For instance, they might know how the word ‘dog’ is made up of three phonemes: /d/, /o/, and /g/. Throughout phonics, children will explore how words can be broken into their phonemes in a process known as segments.

How many phonemes are in English?

We now know what phonemes are, but how many are in English?

You might assume the letters have alphabet phonemes to complement them, but this isn’t the case. There are more sounds than letters in the English alphabet; this is why, despite there being only 26 letters in the English alphabet, there are 44 phonemes.

Moreover, many phonemes have more than one way of spelling them. For instance, the /f/ sound can be spelled out using the grapheme’ ph,’ and the/oo’ sound can be spelled as ‘ue.’ So, in short, there are more phonemes than letters in the alphabet, and many more graphemes to represent these phonemes!

Because there are so many phonemes and graphemes, and there’s no direct connection between the alphabet and phonemes, It’s only natural for some young learners to feel quite confused. As they begin reading words, they might not always know which phoneme is represented by a specific graphene.

Fortunately, phonics teaches children all of the 44 phonemes and their graphemes methodically. As they learn these phonemes, kids will also learn how they act as the building blocks of language through which we can form words. Learning to spell words properly using the correct graphemes is also a skill children will develop through key stage 1 and into key stage 2.

What are the 44 phonemes?

Now that we know how many phonemes there are in English, let’s look at all the 44 phonemes that children will learn in phonics.

The 44 phonemes can be divided into two groups: 20 vowel sounds and 24 consonant sounds. Let’s start by looking at the different vowel phonemes in the English language, some of their graphemes, and a few examples of where these 44 phonemes might appear:

Short and long vowel sounds:

Short vowel sounds	Long vowel sounds
a – cat, bat, and	ai – paid, way, stay
e – bed, red	ee – bee, heat, feet
i – big, sit	ie – sky, high
o – dog, log	oe – bpw, roe
u – put, book	ue – cue, moon

Other vowel sounds:

Vowel phonemes	Examples
ar	car, far, star
er/ir/ur	fern, bird, turn
or	born, core
ow/ou	now, cow
oy/oi	toy, joy
eer/ear	hear, fear, deer
air, ere	stair, chair, there
our	four, your
schwa (ə)	balloon, bottom, family

Consonant phonemes:

Consonant phonemes	Examples
b	box, black
c	cup, cake
ch	chop, change
d	day, dog
f	fast, feet
g	get, gap
h	hit, horse
j	jar, June
l	long, left
m	met, mat
n	not, next
p	part, post
r	rat, rest
s	seat, soft
sh	ship, shift
t	tip, test
th	thin
th	these, those
v	vest, vote
w	we, wore
y	yet, your
z	zoo, zip
ng	ring, sing
ge	collage

In some cases, letters of the alphabet and phonemes are closely linked. For instance, the grapheme ‘f’ shows the pure /f/ sound, while the grapheme ‘a’ represents the short ‘a’ sound. However, you might have also noticed that some of the graphemes we use to describe the 44 phonemes are made up of more than one letter!

When two letters represent a single sound, we call it a digraph. There are also some trigraphs where three letters form one sound. A grapheme can consist of up to four letters.

What is phoneme segmentation?

We know how many phonemes are; we looked at all 44 phonemes and saw some combinations of letters of the alphabet that phonemes are represented by.

So in this next bit, let’s find out about phoneme segmentation or segments. We touched on this earlier, but what is it, and why is it an essential part of phonics?

Phoneme segmentation, or segmenting, is more straightforward than its scary-looking name suggests. It essentially means breaking a word down into its phoneme sounds.

Phoneme segmentation is a skill that helps children learn how to read and spell words. By segmenting words into phonemes, kids can see the different sounds and how they come together in the complete word. It’s like taking a machine apart to see how it works!

There are many different things in the world around us; look around your room now, and you’ll find many examples. A book, maybe? A cat? A pencil? And we can separate all of these things into two categories – living and non-living things.

Good news means you’re a living thing if you’re reading this! (Unless you’re a ghost, we recommend you stop reading this page and go back to doing other ghostly things.)

But what are living things and non-living things? What makes us living and other items not so much? And what makes other things living, too, like plants and animals? After all, we’re all quite different.

Fear not. There are ways for us to tell the difference between what is a living thing and what isn’t. There are vital things living things do and non-living things that don’t. And scientists have come up with a list of characteristics that something must have for it to be seen as living. These things include being able to grow and reproduce. But, of course, some non-living things will be able to do some of these things, too – like a fire, which can expand and multiply. But a fire isn’t a living thing because it doesn’t have all the characteristics that a living thing must have.

And we also show these characteristics in different ways. A tree, for example, is very different from a dog (do you hear any trees woofing? Dogs growing leaves?), but they are still both living things because they satisfy the characteristics in different ways.

Keep reading to learn how living things grow!

What are living things and non-living things?

Living things have the same life cycle – birth, growth, reproduction, and death. However, living things don’t live forever and have a specific life span. Living things are made up of microscopic structures called cells, which go through cellular respiration, allowing them to take in energy and perform their functions.

Living things grow and move, though not always in the same way. Humans will move by walking, running, and all those things. But plants move too to reach sunlight. I’m not saying that you’ll see a plant pick up its plant pot and run a marathon anytime soon, but you will see a plant move toward the sun. Put one plant in a dark corner and one with a view of sunlight, and watch how they grow changes as they both try to reach the sunlight.

Living things also meet the following characteristics to be classed as living.

Organized

A living thing must be organized. To be organized, a living thing must have an orderly structure or organization. All living things are made up of one or more cells.

Reproduces

A living thing must be able to reproduce. By this, we mean that a living thing can create offspring, letting life continue by creating more living things. Humans do this by having children, and plants do this through both sexual and asexual reproduction. Through reproduction, parents can pass on genetic information to their offspring.

Grows

All living things grow. You’re a different size now than when you were born. That’s because you’re living! Other living things also grow, like plants, as they move through various stages of development.

Adjusts

All living things respond and adjust to their environment. For humans, this could mean our bodies changing their temperature. Like when it’s hot, our bodies sweat, and when it’s cold, our bodies shiver. And when we read fascinating teaching wikis like this one, we sit with big smiles!

Take in nutrients

Food, glorious food! All living things take in nutrients to survive, which, for us, means eating food. Cheeseburgers for everybody! (Just kidding.)

Plants take in nutrients through photosynthesis, where the chlorophyll in leaves soaks in the sunlight and turns it into energy. Not as tasty as cheeseburgers, but nutritious all the same.

Adapts

Living things adapt to their 
environment, so they have a better chance at survival; this means that the way a living thing looks and behaves is suited to its environment to keep them living. For example, giraffes have long necks to eat tall trees. Or a polar bear, who lives where it’s freezing, has thick fur to keep warm.

Did you know it’s not just animals that adapt to survive, but plants too? Like, for example, the cactus. Because a cactus tends to live in a scorching desert with little water, they have long roots to collect water from a large area and a stem that can store water for a long time.

Excrete Waste

After taking in nutrients, all living things excrete waste; this means poo for us human folk.

How do living things grow and develop?

While they may often be confused as the same thing, growth and development are two different processes. On the one hand, growth is when organisms increase in size and mass. While development is when organisms completely transform in the process of evolution.

All living organisms must grow and develop throughout the aging process. Humans, for instance, begin life as babies, at which time we have all of the same key features as an adult, such as eyes, ears, feet, hands, a heart, etc. However, at this point, we are tiny. As we age, we grow in size and mass and become adults. All the while, we maintain the same features that we were born with. This process is called growth.

Human beings also go through a process of development, but this happens before we are born. In the womb, we start as single-cell organisms and then completely transform into a zygote before changing again into a fetus and, finally, into a baby.

The question of ‘how do living things grow and develop?’ differs from organism to organism. The processes are much more dramatic for some organisms, while it is more minimal for others.

Plants, for instance, can start life as tiny seeds and grow into large trees as they age. However, one common feature connects all living things in their growth and development. They all grow and develop to look like their parent species.

Repair is a big part of how living things grow. There is a certain amount of wear and tear that occurs throughout the aging process for a cell. Throughout this time, the cell may suffer injury or bruises, and their ability to carry out different life functions weakens. In this case, cells repair themselves by growing new cells in Mitosis.

The seven functions of living things

Seven essential functions are necessary for life. As such, every living thing must carry out these functions to survive.

• Movement

All living things must be able to move in some way without needing external help. The type of movement can vary from organism to organism. For some organisms, this movement will look like an internal flow of material or an external movement of either part of the organism or the organism as a whole.

• Sensitivity

Living organisms must have a certain degree of sensitivity to respond to what is happening around them. For instance, green plants sense the Sun and grow towards it to get nutrients.

• Respiration

Another requirement for all living organisms is respiration, the chemical process by which organic compounds release energy. There are two types of respiration: aerobic, which requires oxygen and releases lots of energy, and anaerobic, which doesn’t require oxygen but releases much less energy.

Cellular respiration releases energy stored in food molecules, and all living things must be capable of it.

• Nutrition

Energy is vital for any living thing to survive, and they get energy from nutrients from food. The source of nutrition will be different depending on the organism. Green plants, algae, and certain archaea and bacteria can make their food from water and carbon dioxide through a process known as photosynthesis. Legumes, on the other hand, make proteins by taking in nitrogen, which comes from the bacteria that live in the plant’s roots. Moreover, animals, fungi, protozoa, and many archaea and bacteria cannot create their food, so they have to find it from an external source. There are many ways they can do this, depending on the physical makeup and capability of the organism. Animals, for instance, can hunt and feed off of each other.

• Growth

As living things get older, they grow. Although lifeless or inanimate things can grow, they do so differently from living organisms. Living things grow by creating new parts and materials and changing the old ones; this is why, as humans grow, we get new teeth, etc., and the shape and proportions of our bodies changes. Healing is also a part of the growth of living things. For instance, our bodies grow new skin when we cut ourselves.

• Reproduction

Reproduction is an essential function of living things. Without it, more living things would not be able to be created. Like many other processes mentioned in this list, reproduction will look different depending on the organism. However, the result is always the same: a new living organism is created.

• Excretion

The last of the seven essential functions is excretion. Excretion is how living things create and dispose of waste products. Most of this waste derives from food, while the rest comes from movement, growth, and other living functions.

An easy way to remember these functions is with the acronym: MRS GREN, which stands for Movement, Respiration, Sensitivity, Growth, Reproduction, Excretion, and Nutrition.

Non-living things

There are also lots of non-living things. Your toothbrush in the bathroom? The dog bowl in your kitchen? What computer screen you’re reading this on? They’re all non-living things.

They’re not living things, meaning they don’t possess life. They don’t meet all of the above characteristics like we do. They don’t have a lifespan or need food and energy like living things.

If a non-living thing grows, it’s not through the same process we do. It only grows through adding exterior materials. Like that pile of dirty washing on your floor ‘grows’ – it’s because you’re adding extra items.

Like a computer, it doesn’t eat food, excretes any waste, reproduces any baby computers (although that would be cool), and doesn’t breathe or grow. We could make it ‘grow’ by plugging something into it, but it’s not increasing. It moves if we pick it up and move it, but it also cannot move.

Below are some critical characteristics of non-living things.

• Non-living things don’t reproduce, need nutrition, and produce excretion.
• Non-living things don’t have cells.
• Non-living things don’t have a definite shape of their own. Instead, their body depends on their environment, like the water in glass taking the shape of its container. Or a rock’s size will change depending on the climate and landscape.
• Non-living things don’t respire.
• Non-living things don’t grow by themselves without external influence.
• Non-living things won’t die because they’re not alive.

What are living things and non-living things? – examples

Living things

• pig;
• ladybird;
• tree;
• dog;
• cat;
• plant;
• snail;
• baby;
• hamster;
• rabbit.

Non-living things

• laptop;
• camera;
• phone;
• pencil;
• lamp;
• remote control;
• desk;
• bed;
• wardrobe;
• fire.

What are magnets used for? Well, magnets are used in various ways in our everyday lives – even in some places where we might not expect them to be! Here are some uses:

Toys

Magnets are found in some toys. For example, a toy train set often has magnets that attach the carriages, or you can also get building blocks that stick together with magnets.

Compasses

In compasses, magnets ensure that the needle always points north. Using this same method, you can make your basic compass at home. All you need is a bowl of water, a cork, and a needle. Then, you’ll see how the north pole’s magnetic pull changes the needle’s direction.

Hospitals

In some medical processes, they use magnets. For example, powerful magnets are used in some scans, such as NMR and MRI. An MRI machine is a large, cylindrical scanner that uses a powerful magnet to create images of the inside of the body. These images are used to diagnose medical conditions.

Fridge Magnets

One of the most apparent magnets uses fridge magnets! They can be used to attach pictures to your fridge. In addition, alphabet magnets can be used to spell out words on your fridge and fun messages!

Furniture and Household Appliances

Some cupboards and drawers use magnets to keep the doors closed, as well as fridges too. Some cool new designs use magnets to appear floating in the air! A few household appliances also use magnets; you probably have one at home! Waves, speakers, earphones, and fans all use magnets to work.

Jewelry

Some jewelry pieces have magnetic clasps to clip the ends around your neck or arm. There are also magnetic earrings for people who don’t have their ears pierced.

Recycling

Magnets are also a great way to separate different metals, some of the metals will stick to the magnet, and some won’t; this means they can use magnets when splitting up materials and use this to recycle things faster!

Industrial Machinery

Special vehicles have strong magnets for picking up cars and scrap metal. Magnets can also be found in the machinery motors, which help keep the parts moving. In a computer, a hard drive contains a powerful magnet; this means the data can be saved to your computer and then kept safe for a long time too! It also means the data can be read by the computer too. The integrated speakers also need a magnet to make the sound vibrate.

Mag-Lev Trains

Mag-Lev trains use magnets to hover above the ground because there are giant magnets on the bottom side of the train and on the tracks that repel each other. Because of this, these trains can travel very fast – even up to 200mph!