Teaching Strategies, Tactics, and Methods

The least common denominator (LCD), also known as the lowest common denominator, is the smallest number that can be a common denominator for a set of fractions.

The LCD of two fractions, then, is the least common multiple of the denominators of the two fractions. Therefore, it would help if you first found the least common multiple of the two fractions’ denominators to find the LCD of the two fractions.

How to Find the LCD of Two Fractions?

While finding the least common denominator can seem complicated, it is a straightforward process. You can use two methods to find the LCD of two fractions.

Method 1

The first method finds the least common denominator of two fractions by figuring out the lowest possible common denominators.

For example:

Find the least common denominator of 1/4 and 1/6:

The denominators of these two fractions are 4 and 6. The multiples of 4 and 6 are:

Multiples of 4:4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, 44, 48

Multiples of 6:6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60

From this list of multiples, we can see that the least common multiple is 12. So, the least common denominator of these two fractions is 12.

Answer: The least common denominator of 1/4 and 1/6 is 12.

Method 2

To find the least common denominator using the second method, you must find the prime factors of the denominators. The second method of finding the LCD of two fractions can be laid out in these four easy steps:

1. Factor each of the denominators into its primes.
2. List all of the primes, noting down all of the matching primes.
3. Multiply the factors, and the product will be the lowest common multiple of the denominators.
4. The lowest common multiple of the denominators is the LCD of the two fractions.

For example:

Find the least common denominator of 1/8 and 1/12:

The denominators of these fractions are 8 and 12.

Now, we have to find the prime factorizations of these two denominators:

Prime factorisations of 8= 2 × 2 × 2

Prime factorisations of 12= 2 × 2 × 3

The most occurrences of the prime numbers 2 and 3 are two × 2 × 2 in 8 and 3 in 12.

Now we have to multiply all of the factors together.

2 × 2 × 2 × 3 = 24

Answer: The least common denominator of 1/8 and 1/12 is 24.

While soil is a term that different people use differently, topsoil is the recognizable crumbly ‘mud’ found in gardens and outdoor areas.

Soil is the top layer of the Earth’s crust, containing minerals, chemicals, and organisms that help support plant and animal life.

Soil scientists usually study the earth’s surface to a depth of about 1.2 meters.

Categories of Soil

Soil is generally classified into four categories:

• Clay — is the finest type of soil, with a diameter of fewer than 2 micrometers. A micrometer is a thousandth of a millimeter.
• Silt — this has a diameter of 2-60 micrometers.
• Sand — Soil of this size and above can be seen with the naked eye.
• Stones — particles larger than 2 mm are classed as stones, which can include grit and gravel.

Clay, Silt, and Sand are known as ‘fine earth.’

How is Soil Formed?

Soil is not formed overnight; it can take up to 1000 years for just an inch of ground to form! Therefore, time is a critical component in the formation of soil. Some other factors that aid the shape of the earth are:

• Living organisms like plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria.
• Topography is the slope of the land where the soil is forming.
• The climate where the soil is forming
• Parent material is the minerals and rocks that disintegrate to form the soil.

Why is Soil Important?

It can be easy to disregard soil and classify it as unimportant because it is often considered dirt. However, soil plays a crucial role in supporting life on Earth. Here are some of the ways that soil is so important:

• Plants: The majority of plants need soil to grow. Soil is vital for plants as it provides them with food and nutrients. Moreover, plants use the earth to anchor themselves to the ground using their roots.
• Atmosphere: Soil releases gases, including carbon dioxide, into the air, impacting the atmosphere.
• Living Organisms: Lots of living things, such as animals, plants, fungi, and bacteria, rely on the soil as a place to live.
• Nutrient Cycles: Soil is vital in cycling nutrients, including the carbon and nitrogen cycles.
• Water: The soil aids in the filtration and cleansing of our water.

Residual Soil

Residual soil is essentially soil material that has come about as the result of weathering and decomposition of rocks that have not been transported from their original place. Residual soil takes many years to form, as mechanical and chemical weathering transforms solid rock into soil.

The process of the formation of residual soil can be laid out in these steps:

1. The bedrock, the layer of solid rock beneath the soil, breaks due to weathering from various physical processes, such as ice wedging.
2. Water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide seep into the cracks of the bedrock and cause chemical weathering.
3. Plants become established and produce biological weathering.
4. Weathered materials collect and eventually form soil.
5. The soil slowly develops soil horizons as each of the layers of soil becomes altered. This is because the top layer of soil is exposed to the most weathering, and each of the soil layers is changed slightly less after this. This is because the top layer of soil is the first to come into contact with water and air.

Layers of Soil

There are many layers of soil, also known as horizons, which are all labeled in descending order from the top layer to the bottom:

O (humus or organic): This layer is mainly composed of organic matter, like decomposing leaves. This layer can be thin in some soils, thick in others, and not even present in others.

A (topsoil): This horizon is composed mainly of minerals from the parent material, with some organic matter incorporated into the mix. Topsoil is an excellent source of material for plants and other living organisms to live off.

E (eluviated): This layer of soil is leached of clay, minerals, and organic matter. After this, a heavy concentration of sand and silt particles of various resistant materials remains. This layer is not present in some soils but is often found in older and forest soils.

B (subsoil): The subsoil is rich in minerals that have been down or been leached from both the topsoil and the eluviated soil layers.

C (parent material): This layer of soil has little to no evidence of weathering or other alterations of the soil particles.

R (bedrock): This layer of soil is made up of a mass of rock such as granite, basalt, quartzite, limestone, or sandstone.

The focus is mainly on the three main horizons, which even the simplest of soils possess: the topsoil, the subsoil, and the horizon.

Let’s dive deeper into each of these layers of soil:

• Topsoil

The topsoil, known as the A horizon, tends to be the darkest layer of soil as it contains a lot of organic material. This layer of soil is home to the most intense biological activity, as many insects and small animals burrow through it. Plants also reach their roots down into the topsoil. These plant roots play a crucial role in keeping this layer of soil in place.

In the topsoil, minerals often dissolve in the fresh water that moves through this layer to be carried to the lower soil layers. Other tiny particles can also get transported to these lower soil layers as water seeps further into the ground.

Plant roots help to hold this layer of soil in place. In the topsoil, minerals may dissolve in the fresh water that moves through it to be carried to lower soil layers. Small particles, such as clay, may also get taken to reduce layers as water seeps into the ground.

• Subsoil

This layer of soil is located directly below the topsoil and is made up mainly of minerals and leached materials. In addition, the subsoil is home to humus, a dark, organic material that forms in soil from decaying plants, animal matter, and clay. However, the subsoil does not contain as many macroscopic and microscopic organisms that reside in the topsoil, making it rich in organic matter.

• Bedrock

This layer of soil, also called the C horizon, is a layer of partly altered bedrock. Some weathering has taken place in this layer of soil, but not so much so that the original rock cannot be seen.

It would be impossible to go into detail about all the different types of soil, as there are thousands out there, each of which has unique characteristics and features. Let’s instead look at a few common types of soil:

• Sandy soil

Sandy soil is characteristically dry and warm. This type of sand is also typically very acidic and low in nutrients. Sandy soils are also categorized as light soils because they contain a large amount of sand and very little clay.

One of the defining features of sandy soil is its excellent water drainage. However, this water drainage has downsides, so this soil struggles to absorb nutrients. It is much quicker to warm up in spring than more clay-heavy soils, but it is also more likely to dry out in summer.

Adding organic matter can improve this sandy soil’s nutrient density and water-holding capacity.

• Clay Soil

Unlike sandy soil, clay soil is very heavy and high in nutrients. In winter, clay soil stays pretty cold and wet, while it tends to dry out in summer. This is because clay soils comprise over 25% clay, with spaces between the different clay particles. These spaces allow clay soils to retain such a high level of water.

Clay soils are regarded as a gardener’s nightmare, as they drain slowly and take a long time to warm up in summer. This, in combination with the fact that they dry out in summer, makes them very difficult to work with.

• Silt Soil

Silt soil is very light, fertile soil with a high moisture retention level. Silt soil has such a high level of moisture retention as it is composed of medium-sized particles. However, these particles tend to get washed away with the rain as they are excellent. However, this can be stopped by adding organic matter, which helps the silt soil particles form into clumps.

• Chalk Soil

Chalk soil is pretty versatile because it can be either light or heavy. However, it always has a high alkaline concentration due to the calcium carbonate within its structure. As a result of its alkaline content, chalk soil does not support the growth of ericaceous plants, such as azaleas, blueberries, camellias, and rhododendrons. Such plants require much more acidic soils.

There are numerous rivers in the world. Rivers are essential for many reasons. They provide water for drinking; they give access to shipping and transport through waterways; they offer fertile soil for agriculture with their alluvial silt, which nurtures plant life and supports wildlife living in them or around them. Rivers are an essential resource for humans throughout the world. Here are some of the world’s most famous rivers:

The Nile River

The longest river in the world is the Nile River in North and East Africa. It runs through Uganda, Kenya, Sudan, and Egypt before ending in a large delta in the Mediterranean Sea. It is approximately 6695 kilometers long. The source of this mighty river was undetermined for many years until explorers proved that the ultimate authority was Lake Victoria.

The Amazon river

This is the second-longest river in the world and contains the most water. One of the types of fish that live in the Amazon, called Pirarucu, can grow up to 3m in length.  The Amazon River is in South America and is approximately 6,400km long.

Trickling out of Lake Mantaro in the Andes mountain range in Peru, the Amazon River flows through Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia, and Brazil until it enters the Atlantic Ocean.

The Yangtze river

The Yangtze river is the longest river in Asia and the third-longest river in the world. It is heavily polluted. This river is the lifeblood of China as it is its main waterway. It is 6300 kilometers long, and its basin covers 1,808,500 square kilometers. It is the longest river in a single country in the world.

The Ganges river

This is also one of the most famous rivers, 2525km long. It starts in the Himalayas and flows through Nepal, India, and Bangladesh before reaching the Bay of Bengal. It is one of India’s most sacred rivers, and Hindus bathe in its waters to cleanse themselves or pay tribute. Sacred fish swim in the Ganges, and turtles and alligators live there too.

The Mississippi River

This river is 3,766km long. It starts in Minnesota and ends in the Gulf of Mexico. It’s not just famous for being so long; it flows through or borders ten states, with Iowa and Missouri having their borders meet with the river at opposite sides. The Mississippi River also flows through or borders Louisiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Mississippi.

The Danube River

the Danube River is a major European waterway. It is 2850km long, making it the 2nd longest river in Europe (after the Volga in Russia). This river flows through or borders Germany, Austria, Slovakia,  Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, and Ukraine.

The River Thames

This river runs through London. Over 200 bridges cross the Thames.  It is tidal up to Teddington Lock near London. The Thames can be dangerous to navigate as it has whirlpools and strong undercurrents.

The Congo River

Another of the most famous rivers in the world is the Congo River, which is located in Africa and reaches up to 220m deep in places! The Congo River is 4750km long and is the second largest river in Africa (after the Nile). It is also the deepest river in the world.

Determiners, in English grammar, are a type of word that comes before a noun to introduce it and provide additional information about the quantity and proximity of the noun.

It helps give the reader or listener more context. For example, ‘this plate’ or ‘my house.’

Determiners can be used to describe an object in further detail, revealing additional information to help give the reader or listener a better understanding of a text.

Determiners can point out things like proximity, possession, and plurality. In simpler terms, determiners can point out:

• Proximity: i.e., how close or far away things are about the text’s narrative perspective and point of view. For example, the determiner ‘this’ in the phrase ‘this chair’ shows that the chair referred to is in proximity to the person referring to the chair. Using an alternative determiner like ‘that’ or ‘those’ chairs would indicate some distance between the chair and the person referring to the chair.
• Possession: i.e., who possesses the noun the determiner refers to. For example, ‘her shoes’ or ‘my.’
• Plurality: i.e., if a noun is singular or plural. The determiner ‘the’ in the phrase ‘the car’ refers to a specific, unique car. A determiner like ‘these’ or ‘those’ indicates the number of vehicles is plural.

Types of Determiners in English

Here are the different main types of determiners in English grammar:

• definite Articles (‘the’)
• indefinite Articles (‘a’)
• demonstratives (‘this’ or ‘that’)
• possessives (‘her.’ ‘his,’ or ‘my’)
• quantifiers (‘some’ or ‘many’)
• numbers (‘one’ or ‘two’)

Determiners Examples in Writing Composition

To understand the question ‘what is a determiner?’, it’s helpful to look at some examples.

Possessive Determiners

• Alison watched with sad eyes as they took the sofa away.

• Alison watched with sad eyes as they took her mother’s sofa away.

Here, the determiner is possessive, providing more clarification on who the sofa belongs to. This hints that the sofa has a deeper meaning to Alison and makes us wonder where her mother is and why her sofa is being taken away.

Demonstrative Determiners

Demonstrative determiners can be used for accuracy and to clarify specific things.

For instance, ‘Take a pen’ is an explicit instruction. However, ‘Take this pen’ is more specific and provides more information about which pen to take.

Number Determiners

Numbers can also provide a clearer picture to readers or listeners. For example, there’s a great deal of difference between the following two statements:

• Stuart came downstairs, balancing some large boxes in his arms.

• Stuart came downstairs, balancing ten large boxes in his arms.

1. Learn about World Kindness Day Lesson Plan

The first question your students may ask you is, “What is World Kindness Day?”

World Kindness Day was introduced in 1998 by the World Kindness Movement. It’s an event observed every year on November 13 and is celebrated in many countries, including Japan, Canada, and the United States.

The purpose of World Kindness Day is to remind ourselves that even simple acts of kindness can make this world a better place. And one of the best (and undoubtedly engaging) ways to teach your elementary school students about this holiday is to show them kindness.

2. Study a Story About Kindness

Not many stories or fables about kindness and friendship are more memorable than Aesop’s The Lion and The Mouse. So why not discuss this story in class?

One of the best and most simple Kindness Day activities, reading a story and completing an activity about the tale, will help children further understand the value of kindness. You can read the story aloud or encourage your students to act out the account.

3. Share a Kindness Book with a Buddy

Like the fable above, books are an excellent way to discuss the importance of kindness. Plus, they can be shared regularly and help children improve their language skills.

You can read the books to your class or encourage your students to read to each other. Below are a few kindness books that are favorites among teachers:

• What Does It Mean to Be Kind?  by Rana DiOrio (PreK to first grade)
• The Kindness Quilt by Nancy Elizabeth Wallace (PreK to second grade)
• Most People by Michael Leannah (PreK to third grade)
• How to Heal a Broken Wing by Bob Graham (PreK to third grade)
• Kindness is Cooler, Mrs. Ruler by Margery Cuyler (kindergarten to second grade)
• I Walk With Vanessa by Kerascoet (kindergarten to fourth grade)
• Last Stop on Market Street by Matt de la Peña (kindergarten to fifth grade)
• Under the Lemon Moon by Edith Hope Fine (first to fifth grade)
• The Invisible Boy by Trudy Ludwig (first to fifth grade)
• Those Shoes by Maribeth Boelts (first to fifth grade)
• The Quiltmaker’s Gift by Jeff Brumbeau (first to fifth grade)

You can also ask your students if they have any kindness books at home that they’d like to bring in and share with the class.

4. Craft a Kindness Quilt

If you read The Kindness Quilt or The Quiltmaker’s Gift to your class, this paper kindness quilt activity is a great follow-up.

In years gone by, families and friends would make friendship quilts to commemorate special occasions or give them as gifts to loved ones. Particular messages were often added to the quilts to show love and friendship.

5. Make Kindness Fortune Tellers

Most kids love playing with paper fortune tellers, and making ones about kindness can be just as fun!

6. Send a Compliment Card

Spread kindness and improve your writing skills with this easy-to-do classroom activity. It’s a win-win!

One of our favorite World Kindness Day activities, compliments and positive words are an excellent way to brighten someone’s day. In addition, writing a note or making a card is an activity that can easily be incorporated into a writing or morning work assignment.

7. Fill a Kindness Jar

If you have an empty jar at home, why not make a kindness jar and feature it in the classroom? Then, challenge your students to fill the pot by the end of the week, month, or year. Add a building block, pom-pom, handwritten note, or even chocolate for every act of kindness!

It’s an excellent way for students to visualize how every act of kindness adds up.

8. Make a Sweet Statement: Kindness Jar Banner

If you want to expand upon the kindness jar activity, why not make a banner that proudly shows your students’ acts of kindness?

For this World Kindness Day activity, please encourage your students to think of something they have done recently that has shown kindness to another person. Then ask them to write down the act of kindness.

9. Write a Poem or Story About Kindness

Get kind thoughts and creativity flowing with a writing activity to celebrate World Kindness Day. Encourage your students to write poems or stories with others in mind and then present the finished masterpieces to those individuals!

Writing about kindness is an excellent way for your students to refocus and think positively. But, of course, the person who reads the poem or story will also be in for a real treat!

10. Grow a Kindness Tree

Kindness is often compared to a seed.  It can grow and blossom into something incredible when nurtured and attended to regularly.

Students can then decorate and cut out their leaves before attaching them to the tree. One of the most creative and team-building World Kindness Day activities, this kindness tree task will brighten up your classroom for weeks to come!

11. Design a Hug Coupon

When it comes to kindness currency, hugs are the gold standard!

Kids can have fun and create hug coupons to give to friends and family as an act of kindness.

12. Share the “Words Are Like Toothpaste” Lesson

While many kids will be familiar with the saying, “actions speak louder than words,” it’s still important to acknowledge that words have an impact. They can be pretty potent!

You’ll need the following:

• tubes of toothpaste
• paper plates
• toothpicks or small spoons

Students can work in pairs or small groups. Please encourage them to squeeze the toothpaste onto a paper plate. Then, ask them to put the toothpaste back in the tube.

If your students give you funny looks, it’s not surprising. But, unfortunately, getting toothpaste back in the tube is tricky, if not impossible.

But this is an excellent example of how difficult it is to take words back. And why it’s important to show kindness and use positive words instead of negative ones. Of all the World Kindness Day activities, this one will surely stick in your children’s minds and have a lasting impact.

13. Paint Positivity Pebbles (or Stones)

Encourage your kids to get crafting and spread kindness with this fun (and popular) arts and crafts activity that requires little preparation. All you need are some small, smooth stones that can be gathered and brought from home. Plus, you’ll need some paint, markers, and glitter glue (optional).

Kids can have a blast decorating their rocks and adding positive messages. Once the stones are dry, your students can place their rocks around the school for others to find.

Yep, this activity truly rocks!

14. Or, Scrawl Surprising Positivity Pictures and Notes on the Playground

Get outside and share kindness with the entire school with just a bit of chalk and some creativity! Your students can write positive notes and draw pictures in the playground for other students and teachers to see.

There will undoubtedly be many smiles (and a few requests to borrow any left-over chalk).

15. An Act of Kindness Every Day Challenge

We want to think that an act of kindness daily keeps the negativity at bay. Or at least it certainly helps. So, why not get your entire class involved in a kindness day activity challenge?

The challenge is for your students to select a kindness activity. The challenge can last for a day, a week, or even a month! Each card outlines a new good deed for students to do.

16. Last But Not Least, SMILE!

What is likely your first reaction if someone genuinely smiles at you? On most occasions, we’d smile back. It’s pretty hard not to.

Even a smile can be a kind act that can make someone else feel better. Try this if there is one World Kindness Day classroom activity you’d like your students to attempt. They’ll be grinning non-stop by the end of the day!

Narrative genres are a form of classification that one can sort literary works into through their stylistic choices. These stylistic elements may include characteristics such as theme, tropes, settings, character types, and structure. However, it is not uncommon for narrative pieces to fall into multiple genres, mainly if the work contains a multitude of subplots. Some types of narrative genres include:

• Folklore and Fairy tale
• Fable
• Fantasy
• Science Fiction
• Romance

Folklore and Fairy Tales

Folklore is cultural tales shared by a particular group that contains traditions, proverbs, myths, and legends. These tales are part of their culture’s identity. Folklore is an ancient narrative genre, with its roots predating writing and being shared in oral storytelling and music.

Folklore deeply reflects a culture’s historical background, reflecting the traditions passed down through the generations. In addition, any folklore stories con

Some famous examples of folklore stories are:

‘Little Red Riding Hood’: This is a European folk tale about a young girl being pursued by a Big Bad Wolf, and records of this tale predate the 17thCentury. This tale demonstrates the dangers of the world beyond the safety of the village and how one should be careful.

‘Hansel and Gretel’: This is a German folk tale about a brother and sister attempting to escape the clutches of a witch. Some say this tale can be traced back to the 16th Century. This tale contains a similar message to Little Red Riding Hood and is a cautionary tale about the world’s dangers.

A fairy tale is a type of narrative genre that is a subgenre of Folklore. These stories are characterized by fantastical creatures such as dragons, elves, and talking animals and contain elements of magic. While some cultures do not distinguish between these two types of narrative genres, others do, characterizing fairy tales as being entirely fictional, having a pleased ending, and being ‘set once upon a time.’

Some famous examples of fairy tales include:

• ‘Cinderella’ or ‘The Little Glass Slipper’: This fairy tale follows a girl called Cinderella who lives in poverty and is the victim of cruelties done to her by her evil stepmother and stepsisters. However, her circumstances change dramatically with her ascension to the throne and marriage to the prince. Cinderella has its roots in Ancient Egypt and is a quintessential fairy tale.

• ‘Sleeping Beauty’: This classic fairy tale us about a princess who is cursed by an evil fairy to sleep for 100 years, but she is to be awakened by a handsome prince. The earliest known versions of this narrative are dated around 1330. This is another fairy tale that employs the classic fairy tale trope of defeating evil and living happily ever after.

Fables

Fables are a narrative genre that focuses on illustrating a moral lesson. These moral lessons must be discerned from the tale, or an explicit maxim must be stated.

Fables are written in either prose or verse and explicitly feature anthropomorphized animals, plants, mythical and legendary creatures, and natural forces. These elements are a vital part of the fable genre.

However, fables are often confused with parables, but the key difference is that parables actively exclude this anthropomorphizing and heavily focus on human characters instead.

Some famous examples of fables are:

• Aesop’s fable of ‘The Tortoise and the Hare’ follows the story of a hare and a tortoise in a race. While the hare races ahead and becomes arrogant in its speed and sure victory, the tortoise takes their time. This fable concludes with the hare taking a nap as they underestimate the tortoise, and the tortoise eventually wins the race. This tale tends to teach the maxim ‘slow and steady wins the race’ and portrays the benefits of patience and taking one’s time.
• Aesop’s fable of ‘The Lion and the Mouse’: A lion shows mouse mercy by freeing them. Later, the lion gets trapped by hunters, but the same mouse who the lion freed helps them escape. This story teaches the importance of showing mercy and gratitude.

Fantasy

Fantasy is a narrative genre that incorporates fantastical and magical elements into the piece that do not exist. While there are tropes that are typical of the fantasy genre, such as the existence of magic and certain mythological beings like elves, it is a genre that is so broad that it includes a variety of subdivisions to categorize it further.

Some of these include:

• High Fantasy or Epic Fantasy: Works of this kind are separate from our actual world. The author has devised their species, cultures, and scientific laws. In works like these, the stakes tend to be extremely high and on a colossal scale. An example of high fantasy is J.R.R. Tolkien’s ‘Lord of the Rings.’

• Low Fantasy: Low fantasy tends to differ from high fantasy because it does not always occur in a fantastic place. It tends to incorporate magical elements into an otherwise ordinary world. An example of this fantasy type is J.K. Rowling’s ‘Harry Potter’ series or C.S. Lewis’ ‘The Chronicles of Narnia.’

Science Fiction

Science fiction is a narrative genre that explores worlds with unique technologies. This genre typically contains innovative technologies and deals with space, time travel, and exploration concepts. Stories within this genre can go from almost fantasy-like with epic stakes and adventure to mundane, everyday stories where advanced technology plays a role.

Like fantasy, science fiction also has a myriad of different subdivisions to help further categorize the genre. A popular one is a distinction between hard and soft science fiction.

• Hard Science Fiction: These are pieces of literature that can stand against scientific scrutiny and are rooted in fact and logic. These stories lack fantastical elements as they are not seen as scientifically plausible and are more concerned with possible outcomes or situations that may not have occurred but could potentially occur one day.

• Soft Science Fiction: Soft science fiction tends to be much more lenient on the factual plausibility of events. These pieces are rooted in science fiction because they are overtly characterized by technology but may contain fantastical elements. These works don’t necessarily have to be possible if they are plausible.

Romance

The romance genre is a work that emphasizes two people’s romantic relationships. The characters in this novel tend to find a happy ending, with the work’s overall tone being optimistic. However, that does not mean these works cannot contain their fair share of angst. Having an obstacle to overcome is a common trope in a lot of romance pieces, as it makes the resolution more satisfying.

Romance novels date back to Ancient Greece and have maintained their position as one of the most popular types of narrative genres. It is such a broad genre that it overlaps many different genres. Romance can be woven into almost any other genre and can be used to add stakes and intensity to the plot. For example, many works fall into historical romance, fantasy romance, and science fiction romance. So, while romance can stand on its own as a genre, it is also flexible enough to be interwoven throughout different genres.

When answering the question ‘what is a computer?’ it’s essential to consider where the name ‘computer’ comes from. The word computer comes from the Latin word ‘computare,’ which means ‘to calculate’ or ‘to count.’ As computers weren’t around in the Roman era, the name ‘computer’ was given to people who did calculations using mechanical calculators, such as the abacus. In 1613, English poet Richard Braithwaite also used the term ‘computer’ to describe someone who could do calculations perfectly.

Today, a computer is an electronic device that can input, output, store, and process information, otherwise known as ‘data.’ The computer receives data in a combination of 1s and 0s, known as binary code. You can think of binary code as its language, that computers translate into complex things, such as an image or a video.

Different types of computer

When talking about computers, most people are referring to ‘personal computers,’ such as laptops or desktop computers. And our smartphones have become small personal computers we use throughout the day. But did you know that there are different types of computers? Yes, other computers have additional data processing abilities and are categorized based on their purpose, data handling, and functionality.

The different types of computers are:

• Analog computers
• Personal computers
• Workstation
• Minicomputer
• Mainframe
• Supercomputer

Analog computers process analog data and store it in continuous physical quantities. They perform calculations (rather than instructions) with the support of measures. They’re great for situations where data needs to be measured directly.

A workstation is a particular type of computer connected to a network, and the operating systems they use to allow more than one person to work on it simultaneously. They are used primarily for scientific applications.

A minicomputer is, well, a mini-computer. It has most of the features of a personal computer and can do the same things, but it’s physically smaller.

A mainframe computer is a large and powerful computer that can do large information processing jobs and run a full cooperation’s data processing. The government uses these for census or big companies to analyze consumer statistics.

A supercomputer is not only the most expensive computer but also the most powerful one. This is because it has excellent memory and speed – it’s nearly a thousand times faster than a personal computer and can perform billions of calculations per second.

So, when answering the question ‘what a computer is?’ you’ll now be able to explain that there are different types of computers, and while they all perform the same functions, they have other capabilities.

The history of a computer

We can’t answer ‘what is a computer?’ without also looking at the history of computers. So, let’s begin!

Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace

Charles Babbage built the first mechanical computer in 1837. Charles Babbage was a mathematician, inventor, mechanical engineer, and philosopher, and he is thought to be the ‘Father of the Computer’ because his Analytical Engine could input and output data. Data input was done via punched cards; these controlled the mechanical calculator.

However, Charles Babbage only considered his invention the sophisticated calculating machine; Ada Lovelace recognized it could do more than calculations.

Ada Lovelace, a mathematician, was intrigued by the Analytical Engine and worked out that it could do many sorts of processes, such as composing music. Then, in 1847, she devised an algorithm that instructed the machine to perform different functions. So, Ada Lovelace is considered to be the first computer programmer.

Alan Turing

Alan Turing is one of the most influential people of the 20th century. During his time at Princeton University, Turing designed a theoretical machine named the Universal Machine that could solve any mathematical problem and perform any task.

Alan Turing was more than just a theorist, though. He worked as a codebreaker during the Second World War and attempted to decode the German military’s Enigma Cipher machine. Unfortunately, the Enigma Cipher machine’s encryptions were impossible to solve, and there were billions of encryption schemes.

This led Turing, along with the help of his colleagues and the work of Polish mathematicians, to devise an electromechanical machine that could scan through all the encryptions and help the Allied Intelligence decode the Germans’ Enigma Code. This electromechanical machine, called Bombe, shortened the Second World War by two years, saving millions of live, and was the beginning of digital computers as we know them today.

After the Second World War, Alan Turing continued his work and was employed by the National Physical Laboratory. There, he designed the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE), the first electronic stored-program all-purpose digital computer.

Microsoft, Apple, the Internet, and more!

Many advancements were made to improve and develop the computer in the 20th century, but one notable advancement was the founding of Microsoft. Bill Gates and Paul Allen founded Microsoft in 1975 and developed an operating system in partnership with IBM. A year later, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozinak, and Ronald Wayne founded Apple INC and created Apple 1, the first computer with a single circuit board.

n 1981, IBM released the first personal computer, which used Microsoft’s operating system. This led to the development of many personal computers, including a display, a printer, disk drives, extra memory, and a game adaptor.

The invention of the internet began in 1983, and computer scientists Vinton Cerf and Bob Kahn worked on inventing the Internet communications protocols we use today. The internet is an extensive network of connected computers where users can communicate with each other and share information.

It wasn’t until the invention of the World Wide Web by Sir Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, though, that the internet was accessible to everyone – not just scientists. The World Wide Web (or www) allows webpages to be found easily on this network of computers. The internet will enable you to access and read these pages on your screen, from the comfort of your living room or while traveling on a train.

What is a computer used for?

• Education: A computer allows users to find information on an enormous range of topics. This information can aid pupils’ learning and help them complete research on a topic. It also helps educators find resources for their pupils to use.
• Medicine: Technology has advanced medical equipment, and computers have helped digitalize medical information that doctors, nurses, and medical students can access.
• Science: Scientists can collaborate with other scientists and specialists all over the globe and share their research. They can store and analyze their data on computers too.
• Entertainment: Most people use their computers for joy in one form or another. We can watch films or TV shows on our computers, play games, listen to music and talk to our friends and family.

These are just a few examples of how computers are used today and how computers have helped us and bettered our lives. It is essential, though, to be aware of how to use computers, particularly the internet, safely.

There were no team sports at the ancient Olympics.

While the games did lay the foundations for the Olympics we have today; there are quite a few differences. The games initially started as short foot races, around 200 meters, to keep men fit for war. The tracks were straight lines and were wide enough to fit around 20 men to run side by side.

Greek men ran these races naked! Thankfully, all of today’s events require competitors to be clothed. As the Olympics gained popularity, more events were added; these ranged from horse and chariot races to boxing and wrestling. All these events became extremely popular, but none required any teamwork.

There were no medals at the Olympics.

The award ceremony is a massive part of the Olympics today, but there weren’t any medals in ancient times. Unlike today, there would be one singular winner in each event, and there were no Gold, Silver, and Bronze medals.

Like there are today, there were judges at the games who would decide upon the winner. Winners were awarded a wreath of olives for winning their event. This wreath could even be worn as a crown to signal the competitor’s victory.

The leaves and olives used in the wreath were taken from a sacred tree by the temple of Zeus at Olympia. So, naturally, this made the prize all the more important and precious to the Greeks.

Women could not compete at the Olympics.

Sadly, women were not allowed to compete at the Olympics. Married women were not even permitted to attend the Olympics as visitors. If women were caught trying to sneak into the games, they would be thrown off Mount Olympus as punishment.

Women had an equivalent festival called Heraean Games, which also took place in Olympia. The festival was held in honor of Zeus’ wife, Hera. Women could participate in the foot race, but little is known about the Heraean games as they did not acquire the same success as the Olympics.

The games became hugely popular. 

Over time, the games became extremely popular and a crucial part of Ancient Greek culture. At the height of their popularity, 40,000 people would attend the games that spanned over five days. The games were so important that a temporary peace was established between all Greek city-states. This extraordinary truce was found a month before the games were due in August.

This truce would stop all wars and battles between city-states. This time would allow men to train for their events and allow people to travel between cities without fear of being attacked. Of course, little would stop the Ancient Greeks from fighting, but their love of the Olympics would unite everyone for a short period every four years.

The games were banned in 393 AD.

In 393 AD Emperor Theodosius banned the Olympic Games. This was because the Emperor called for all ‘pagan’ festivals to be banned in favor of the introduction of Christianity. While the Olympics had become a huge event, the sole reason for the events was to honor Zeus. With Christianity now taking precedent, the Emperor called for the event to be banned after nearly 12 continuous centuries of celebration.

It would take another 1,500 years to celebrate the modern Olympic Games. However, in 1896 Baron Pierre de Coubertin revived the Olympics as he admired the focus on physical fitness. Each year to commemorate the origin of the games, a torch is lit in Olympia and carried to the city that will host the games that year.

The statue of Zeus at Olympia was one of the seven ancient wonders.

The temple of Zeus that stood in Olympia, where the events would take place, was home to one of the world’s seven ancient wonders. A statue of Zeus stood 41 feet tall and was made by a sculptor named Phidias around 435 BC. The sculpture depicted Zeus sitting on a vast throne surrounded by different precious stones. This statue signified everything the games stood for.

The statue was lost in the 5th Century AD when it was destroyed. On the third day of the Olympics, in Zeus’ temple, 100 oxen would be burned and sacrificed to the god. This was a sign of respect and honor to Zeus and was an essential part of the festival.

An opinion is a view or judgment about something or someone that isn’t necessarily based on something factual. An idea is a personal judgment, thought, or belief.

What is the definition of and difference between ‘fact’ and ‘opinion’?

Someone’s opinion is a viewpoint they hold, based on evidence but which cannot be proved. Children often learn about opinions in contrast to facts and beliefs.

Opinions can also be called a judgment or an attitude towards the matter – a stance and conclusion reached given the person’s existing knowledge.

Facts can be proven true or false, but our opinions can be swayed and changed due to new information.

Facts are objectively true and have supporting evidence, while a belief is something that someone accepts as accurate without evidence – such as religious beliefs.

It’s essential to distinguish facts, opinions, and beliefs you come across and to understand whether our feelings about something have evidence.

Opinions in the digital age

To comprehend text, speech, and the media that saturates our lives, people need to be able to distinguish facts and opinions.

It is especially critical for children to learn about facts and opinions at school in a world with more fake news, conspiracy theories, and social media influencers/channels, which have given an open platform to many different people to promote their beliefs and opinions.

We must be discerning in the views we choose to listen to, as beliefs can sometimes lead to discrimination and misinformation spreading. Historically, we have seen this in the case of anti-Semitism during WW2. Prejudice is a preconceived opinion not based on knowledge.

Nowadays, many people online with inflammatory or uninformed opinions are just a click away, and some unscrupulous companies will take advantage of trusting individuals – we can empower children with a critical approach to statements.

The language of opinions and facts

We need strategies for telling facts and opinions apart. You can spot facts and views through the language signals and extract the truth from the speculation. Let’s explore a few examples of little words:

• Claims that
• They say
• Suspect that
• Argues that

In contrast, some words indicate factual statements:

• Proven;
• Confirmed;
• Evidence;
• According to.

Who was César Chávez?

César Chávez was an American labor leader and civil rights activist who campaigned for better treatment, conditions and pay for exploited farmworkers across North America.

Born in Arizona to Mexican parents, Chávez spent part of his youth working as a fruit picker on farmland across Arizona and California. He saw first-hand how poorly the farmworkers were treated. Knowing things wouldn’t change until someone did something about it, he decided to become that someone.

Chávez organized the workers and co-founded the United Farm Workers (UFW) trade union. Together they used forms of non-violent protest such as marching, fasting, picketing, and boycotting to make sure their voices were heard and their situation was known. Eventually, the plight of the farmworkers reached the consumers, who had no idea how cruelly the people who brought them their food were treated. As a result of Chávez’s tireless work, laws were passed to improve working conditions for all laborers, such as higher wages, access to drinking water and handwash, rest periods, and health benefits.

César Chávez Fact File

This César Chávez fact file acts as a condensed biography containing information all about César Chávez:

Full Name	Césario Estrada Chávez
Birthday	March 31, 1927
Place of Birth	Yuma, Arizona
Nationality	American
Occupation	Labor leader and civil rights activist
Family	Helen Fabela Chávez (wife) and eight children
Education	Laguna Dam School, Yuma, Arizona Miguel Hidalgo Junior School, Brawley, California Multiple other schools
Accomplishments	Co-founder of United Farm Workers (UFW) labor union (1962) Established union contracts for farmworkers requiring minimum wages, clean drinking water, periods of rest, health benefits, handwashing stations, and protective clothing against pesticides. Presidential Medal of Freedom (1994)

César Chávez Biography

Early Life

Césario Estrada Chávez was born on March 31, 1927, in Yuma, Arizona. He was the second child born to Librado and Juana Estrada Chávez, both born in Mexico and moved to the U.S. as children. He lived with his extended family on a farmstead along with his parents, sisters Rita and Vicki, brothers Richard and Librado, and paternal grandmother Dorotea. The family spoke Spanish and was raised in the Roman Catholic religion. Césario changed his name to César when the school he attended, Laguna Dam School in Yuma, Arizona, forbade speaking Spanish. He was nicknamed “Manzi” for his love of manzanilla (chamomile) tea, was a big fan of sports, and excelled at math.

Until the Great Depression, the Chávez family lived comfortably, but when the Great Depression hit and Dorotea passed away in 1937, the family was kicked off their land and farmstead, which was repossessed to cover her back taxes. Even as a child, César Chávez sensed the injustice of the situation. He moved with his family to California, where they worked as migrant workers, picking fruit and laboring in the fields. Chávez attended multiple schools over this time, moving to wherever his family needed to work and living in extreme poverty. He spent the longest time at Miguel Hidalgo Junior School in Brawley, California, but experienced prejudice due to his Mexican heritage and poor background.

When he graduated from Junior High in June 1942, he left school permanently with an 8th-grade education to work as a full-time farmworker. After two years, he enlisted in the United States Navy, making the rank of seaman first class. He was honorably discharged in 1946, when he rejoined his family in Delano, California, to work as a laborer.

Activism

César Chávez became involved in activism when he joined the National Farm Labor Union (NFLU). The NFLU called for a strike against the DiGiorgio fruit-growing corporation and asked their workers to join them, forming caravans outside the property. Chávez joined the striking workers and eventually led one of the caravans.

Around this time, César Chávez met his future wife, Helen Fabela. The two settled in San José, California, to raise a family while Chávez worked as an apricot picker and lumber handler. There he met Fred Ross and Father Donald McDonnell, social justice activists who became Chávez’s mentors and introduced him to the Community Service Organization (CSO) of San Jose. His involvement in the CSO introduced him to labor organizers and exposed Chávez to the concept of non-violent protest through the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi, who Chávez idolized.

Chávez helped Ross set up CSO chapters across California and would raise funds through unusual means such as organizing carnivals, opening a rummage store, or selling Christmas trees. In 1959 he was promoted to the CSO’s national director and moved his wife and eight children to Los Angeles. As national director, he managed to secure funding for the CSO, conducted voter registration schemes, and extended the state pension to permanent residents. Finally, after three years, he resigned and moved back to Delano to create a labor union for farmworkers.

The National Farm Workers Association

In 1962, César Chávez collaborated with activist and labor leader Dolores Huerta to create their vision of a labor union: the National Farm Workers Association or NFWA (this later came to be known as the United Farm Workers labor union). The flag was designed to look like a black eagle framed in white on a red background, and their motto was “Viva la causa” (“Long live the cause”). Later, they adopted “¡Sí, se puede!” a slogan created by Dolores Huerta that has long since been associated with the movement.

The purpose of the NFWA was to organize farmworkers to fight for their fundamental human rights through peaceful and non-violent means. They initially ran the NFWA out of Chávez’s home and recruited members from the San Joaquin Valley. Its reputation spread so fast that before long, it had members from all across the country and doubled its income by its second year. Then, with financial support behind them, the NFWA agreed to take on their first organized strike on behalf of rose grafters. The strike only lasted four days, after which the employers decided to pay the workers higher wages so they would return to work. With this victory under their belt, César Chávez and the NFWA set their sights on larger opponents.

The Delano Grape Strike

The Delano Grape Strike was initiated by the Filipino-American farmworkers of the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC), who protested for higher wages and safer working conditions against the Delano grape growers of California. The strike was supported by César Chávez and the NFWA, who helped to organize the farmworkers into groups of picketers. The strike was met with skepticism, and many believed Chávez to be a communist, so much so that the FBI launched an investigation into his work.

César Chávez continued to gather donations and support for the strike. He found support from students and the working class and set up protest camps with medical centers, nurseries, and entertainment. It was then that Chávez decided the best way to tackle the Delano grape growers was to boycott their products, bringing the plight of the farmworkers to the consumers who bought Delano grapes. He helped to organize a 300-mile march from Delano to the state capital of Sacramento. Despite intimidation and harassment along the way from supporters of the employers, the crowd of marchers arrived in Sacramento in Easter, having grown from 50 to 8,000 along the way. Because of the march, they agreed with Schenley, one of the grape growers, and decided to end the boycott against them. However, they still had other grape-growing giants to contend with.

In 1967, the NFWA purchased land and turned it into their headquarters, known as The Forty Acres. Concerned that his followers would resort to violence despite the union’s non-violent approach, César Chávez engaged in a 25-day fast in 1968, drinking only water to reaffirm his and the union’s commitment to peaceful protest. This caught the attention of Robert Kennedy (who had previously attended a meeting with Chávez in 1966) and was present when he broke his fast three weeks later. Kennedy asked Chávez to campaign for him, and his successful activism was a massive factor in Kennedy’s victory in California. Tragically, Kennedy was assassinated during the victory celebrations in Los Angeles on June 5, 1968. César Chávez was one of the pallbearers at Kennedy’s funeral.

Kennedy’s assassination came not long after the shooting of Martin Luther King Jr. in Memphis, Tennessee. As concern grew for the safety of civil rights campaigners, Chávez called for a boycott of all grape products in California. The grape producers pushed back with threats of similar sanctions on other products, but by then, César Chávez had reached celebrity status, had books written about him, and had appeared on the Time magazine cover. Finally, in July 1969, César Chávez and the NFWA entered into negotiations with the Delano grape growers. Included in the union’s demands were safety measures regarding the use of pesticides, a new health plan, work safety, increased wages, and the promise to tackle issues at Delano High School, where several students (including Chávez’s daughter Eloise) had been disciplined for supporting the boycott. The Delano grape growers signed the contracts with the union on July 29, 1970, effectively ending the Delano Grape Strike.

Later Life

In 1971, the NFWA became known as the UFW (United Farm Workers). César Chávez continued his activism long after the end of the Delano Grape Strike, taking part in the Salinas Lettuce Strike (1970-71) and melon strikes, among others. The union headquarters was moved to a new base donated by a wealthy Hollywood movie producer who supported Chávez. Situated at the foot of the Tehachapi Mountains in California, the commune was named Nuestra Señora Reina de la Paz (Our Lady Queen of Peace), though it came to be known as “La Paz.” After threats against his life, Chávez spent much of his time in the safety and seclusion of La Paz. However, he continued campaigning for workers’ rights until he died.

Chávez drew criticism for publicly denouncing the Vietnam War after his son Fernando was arrested as a conscientious objector. Because of his views, people often considered him to be a communist. He was also criticized for the cult of celebrity that surrounded him. Because of his previous work as a laborer, Chávez suffered from back pain throughout most of his life. He became a vegetarian in 1970 and adopted a diet to aid with his back pain. He was fond of animals, mainly German shepherd dogs, and kept several at La Paz, including Boycott and Huelga.

In 1988, César Chávez completed a 36-day Fast For Life before passing the fast on various celebrities and known figures. The Reverend Jesse Jackson, Martin Sheen, the Reverend J. Lowery, Edward Olmos, Emilio Estevez, Kerry Kennedy, Peter Chacon, Julie Carmen, Danny Glover, Carly Simon, and Whoopi Goldberg all participated in the fast.

Death

César Chávez passed away at age 66 on April 23, 1993. After a lifetime of campaigning, he died in his sleep of natural causes in San Luis, Arizona. He lay in state at UFW headquarters in The Forty Acres, where tens of thousands of people visited him before his funeral in Delano. At his funeral, 120 pallbearers carried his coffin, and he was buried in a private ceremony in Nuestra Señora Reina de la Paz (La Paz), Keene, California.

Legacy

A year after his death, César Chávez was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Bill Clinton in 1994, which his family received.

On October 8, 2012, President Barack Obama established the César E. Chávez National Monument in Keene, California. Inspired by his words, Obama’s successful 2008 presidential campaign slogan, “Yes, we can,” was an adaptation of Chávez’s “¡Sí, se puede!”. In addition, he continued to honor Chávez by proclaiming his birthday, March 31, as César Chávez Day – a U.S. federal commemorative holiday in 2014. The day is observed by Arizona, California, Colorado, Minnesota, Texas, Utah, Washington, and Wisconsin.

How did César Chávez change the world?

As a result of César Chávez’s activism, the world became a much safer place for migrant workers everywhere. He fought exploitative employers and successfully won without resorting to violent tactics. His success stories have inspired people worldwide, from children to workers and even U.S. presidents!