Teaching Strategies, Tactics, and Methods

Letter Writing

A letter is a form of written communication between two people.

Why would I write a letter?

Although the invention of other technology, such as mobile phones and email, has meant that letter writing is far less popular and frequent, it can still add a personal touch to communication that is important to teach younger children. Here are some examples of when you may write a letter that you can use in writing exercises:

• Job Application: Formal or business-related letters could include job applications such as a resume and cover letter. In these circumstances, writers write in a formal tone of voice as the writer often doesn’t know the recipient of the letter personally. These may become more relevant to older students in middle school and above.

• Keeping in touch with older relatives: Letter writing can be a lovely way to stay in touch with people who remember when letter writing was more popular. So take some time in your class to write a letter to each student’s neighbor, grandparent, mum, dad, or carer to tell them what they have been up to and how much they appreciate them.

• Thank you letter: A thank you letter is also a great way to encourage children’s emotional development, as it’s essential to teach kids to be grateful and appreciative.

• Writing home or to a friend on holiday: While students spend time away from the classroom, they can often miss the social connections and bonds they’ve made in school. Writing can, therefore, be a fun and creative way for children to keep in touch with their classmates. Check out our seasonal and holiday-related letter templates that can help students develop their writing skills and share fun holiday memories while they’re away from the classroom.

What are the types of a letter?

There are many types of letters that children can learn about. These can broadly be sorted into two categories, formal and informal. Formal letters are written and sent to people you don’t have a personal connection with. These can be sent for different reasons, for example, to complain about something, to give or ask for information, or to make an appointment.

On the other hand, informal letters are most often written to people you know, such as friends and family. For example, sending a postcard telling someone about your holiday, saying thank you for a birthday present, or writing to friends or family who might live a long way from you. Narrative letters are also considered informal.

A multiplication fact is an answer to a multiplication calculation. For example, in the sum 3 x 3 = 9, the multiplication fact is 9.

What is a multiplication fact?

A multiplication fact is an answer to a multiplication calculation.

Here are some examples of multiplication sums and their multiplication facts:

• 2 × 2 = 4 (the multiplication fact is 4)
• 7 × 9 = 63 (the multiplication fact is 63)
• 10 × 3 = 30 (the multiplication fact is 30)

How do you write a multiplication fact?

You can write a multiplication fact simply by writing out a multiplication calculation.

For example:

12 × 12 = 144

3 × 6 = 18

8 × 5 = 40

You can also write multiplication facts using different methods of multiplication.

Diagram showing repeated addition on a number line.

For example, repeated addition is a way of finding multiplication facts by repeatedly adding a number until you reach the answer. 2 × 5 is the same as 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 10. So the multiplication fact, in that case, is 10.

Here are some ways to learn multiplication facts and remember multiplication tables (also known as times tables):

1. Use a multiplication square that shows the multiplication facts for numbers in the timetable. It is a great visual aid for learning times tables and multiplication facts.
2. Recite the multiplication table backward and forwards. Children can do this in small groups or as a whole class. Speaking the timetables aloud helps reinforce their memory of basic multiplication facts.
3. Practise skip counting. Skip counting is a type of multiplication by repeated addition. For example, skip counting by 2 is the same as the two times table: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, etc.
4. Use songs and music. These are fantastic for helping children to engage with learning their timetables. Plus, there’s a reason we say that songs get stuck in our heads!

What does multiplication mean?

Multiplication is the process of multiplying something by something else. For example, multiplying 2 by 6 is 12.

Australia is home to a wide variety of animal species, many of which are only found on this continent. A large group of Australian mammals is marsupials. These mammals carry their young in pouches. Another special kind of mammal that can be found here is the monotreme. These mammals are unique because they lay eggs rather than give birth to their young. Australia is also known for its many insects, reptiles, and amphibians. As a result, mammals and birds have been chosen as Australian animal emblems.

1. Kangaroo

Kangaroos are marsupial mammals found in Australia and Tasmania. Marsupials carry their young in a pouch. Kangaroos have large and powerful hind legs and oversized feet. They also have a long and robust tail that helps them balance. Recent research revealed that balancing is not the only way kangaroos use their tail. They use it as a third leg when they walk. During this special three-stage walk, they plant their front legs and tail first, then push off the tail to move forward and produce their hind legs next. Kangaroos are some of the only large animals that use hopping as their primary mode of locomotion.

Kangaroos are herbivores and eat plants, leaves, and grasses. Adult kangaroos can live for months without drinking anything at all. They live in groups called ‘mobs’ and are very social. Kangaroos are some of the most popular Australian animals. They became the symbol of Australia and appeared on many logos and even on some currencies.

2. Emu

The emu is the world’s second-largest bird after the ostrich. Emus can reach up to 190cm in height. They are flightless birds. Emus have long necks and sharp beaks. They have three toes on each foot. They also have a hoof on each of their feet, which they use for fighting and protection from predators.

They are omnivores, and their diet includes grains, flowers, berries, and insects. When food is plentiful, emus will eat a lot of it and store it in their bodies as fat. They can then survive prolonged periods without eating. They live in flocks or pairs. Emus can travel long distances and, if needed, can sprint as fast as 50km/h. Their plumage differs in color depending on their environment. It helps them to blend in with their surroundings.

3. Echidna

The echidna is one of the most adaptable Australian animals in most Australian habitats, including deserts, coastal forests, and meadows. The most distinguishing feature of the echidna is its long, narrow snout with a long tongue perfect for catching insects. Its back and sides are covered with sharp, white spines called quills. They curl up into a ball when threatened, exposing only their quills. It is how echidnas protect themselves from predators. Their diet consists of ants, termites, and larvae. Echidnas make good use of their sharp claws, which they use to search for insects inside rotting logs.

4. Possum

Possums are marsupial mammals that live in trees. They’re known for their long tails. Different species of possums vary in size. The Tasmanian pygmy possum is the smallest marsupial in the world. Here are some quick facts about them:

This tiny animal averages just 7cm in length and weighs 10g. Possums are native to Australia, and there are 23 possum species on this continent. They’re nocturnal, which means they’re mainly active at night. Possums commonly eat eucalyptus, other tree leaves, nectar, flowers, and fruit.

5. Koala

Koalas are another example of native Australian animals. Although they’re often incorrectly referred to as ‘koala bears,’ they are marsupials. They’re related to kangaroos and wombats. Koalas have a distinctive appearance. They’re tailless, stout, and grey-brown. They have a large head with fluffy ears and a large nose.

Koalas are arboreal, which means they live in trees. Their sharp claws help them to climb branches. Their front paws have five digits each, with two acting like thumbs. It helps them hold on to branches and grip their food. Koalas can commonly be found in eucalyptus woodlands. They can eat up to one kilogram of leaves per day. These adorable animals are primarily sedentary and can sleep up to 20 hours daily. They need this large amount of sleep because their diet of leaves is deficient in nutrients and energy.

6. Tasmanian Devil

The Tasmanian devil can only be found in the wild on the island of Tasmania. Tasmanian devils are marsupials, meaning that the females carry their young in pouches. It helps to protect newly born babies. Tasmanian devils have black fur and a white marking on the bottom of their chests.

These animals are carnivorous, which means they only eat meat. Their diet consists of lizards, frogs, insects, and carrion. They can eat up to 40% of their body weight daily. Tasmanian devils are known for their loud screech and ferocity when feeding. They have a powerful bite thanks to their large heads and necks. An interesting fact about Tasmanian devils is that they store fat in their tails, which is helpful when there isn’t much food around.

7. Common Death Adder

The common death adder is a snake species native to Australia. It’s one of the world’s most venomous snakes. This snake has a triangular head and a black coloring with bands of red or brown. Death adders have the longest fangs of all Australian snakes. It lives in woods, grasslands, scrub, and heathland areas. This snake eats small mammals and birds. The common death adder is known for its unique hunting technique. First, it lies in wait, covering itself with leaves to blend into its surroundings. Then, when prey appears, the adder twitches its tail to attract the animal. When the animal approaches, the death adder quickly strikes and injects its venom to kill it.

8. Platypus

The platypus is a semi-aquatic mammal. It’s only found in the small rivers and streams of eastern Australia. This striking Australian animal is one of the most exciting creatures out there. It’s duck-billed, has a beaver-like tail and webbed feet, lays eggs, and its body is covered in fur. Platypuses are monotremes, unique kinds of mammals that lay eggs instead of giving birth to their young.

These intriguing animals close their eyes and ears when underwater. They find their prey by using their sense of electroreception. It means that platypuses can detect electric fields created by the muscular contractions of their prey. They dig up worms, insects, and shrimp using their bills. Platypuses are excellent swimmers able to stay underwater for 30 seconds at a time.

9. Wombat

Wombats are another species of Australian animals that are native only to Australia. They’re marsupial mammals. They’re small animals that resemble a cross between a bear and a pig, with brown to black coloring. They have short legs, a compact head, and strong claws adapted for digging. They are nocturnal, which means they’re mainly active at night.

The wombat diet consists of grass and roots. These animals live in extensive burrows made from the seeds of fallen trees, compacted soil, leaves, and rocks. The wombat’s pouch faces backward, ensuring they don’t gather dirt in their pouches when digging. An interesting fact about wombats is that they produce cube-shaped feces. They arrange these feces to mark their territories and attract mates.

10. Crocodile

Australia is home to both freshwater and saltwater crocodiles. Crocodiles are semiaquatic reptiles. Saltwater crocodiles are the giant crocodiles in the world. Males can grow up to five meters long. They also have the most substantial bite of any animal in the world. These reptiles are cold-blooded, which makes them very sensitive to cold. It is why they spend most of their day warming themselves in the sun.

Crocodiles are carnivores, eating meat and hunting for their prey. They mainly eat fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Crocodiles have potent senses, which is an advantage for these predators. Because their eyes, ears, and nostrils are on the top of their heads, they can lie low in the water as they wait for their prey. In addition, their teeth are being continually replaced, and they can replace each of their 80 teeth up to 50 times in their lifetime.

Which Australian animals are endangered species?

Many Australian animals are endangered. More than 86 types of animals are critically endangered. These include the bilby, wombat, Tasmanian devil, tree kangaroo, red-tailed black cockatoo, and more. These animals are at risk of becoming extinct. It is why we must protect them so that they don’t disappear from the world.

A vocabulary is a set of familiar words that a person knows. Usually developed with age, vocabulary is a valuable and essential tool that helps children (and adults!) to communicate and expand their knowledge.

Tiers of Vocabulary

There are three ‘tiers’ that vocabulary can be placed into.

1. Basic Vocabulary

Basic and simple words are the first things that build up a child’s vocabulary. These are tricky, early-reading words, adjectives, verbs, or nouns. They typically only have a single meaning.

2. High-Frequency Vocabulary

This tier is sometimes called a multiple-meaning vocabulary tier, as the words within it can have more than one meaning. These words are also crucial for reading comprehension, used for direct instructions, and may be descriptive.

3. Low-Frequency Vocabulary

These words are only used for a particular topic, so they may be called topic vocabulary. A child’s low-frequency vocabulary might encompass topics like the weather or geography.

Types of Vocabulary

We may have different vocabularies to draw on depending on whether we’re speaking, listening, reading, or writing.

1. Speaking

Speaking vocabulary consists of the words we can say aloud. These words are used for communicating and giving instructions.

2. Listening

Our listening vocabulary is the words we can understand by hearing them said aloud. Similar to speaking vocabulary, we use these words to listen to what others are communicating to us and what they might be instructing us to do.

Did you know? A fetus may start recognizing some words when in the womb. So your listening vocabulary begins before you’re even born!

3. Reading

Our reading vocabulary is how many words we can understand when reading. Reading is also the primary way to build and grow vocabulary – as you read, you encounter new words you may not have seen or heard before.

4. Writing

The words determine our writing vocabulary we can spell and use correctly in context. People’s writing vocabulary is typically smaller than their speaking or listening vocabulary, so working on it and learning new words is essential.

Why is vocabulary essential in reading?

Vocabulary is essential for speaking and communicating, but it’s also necessary for reading. It’s the key to solid reading comprehension – reading and understanding a text is impossible if you don’t know what the words mean!

When reading a text, we use our vocabulary knowledge to decode what the text is telling us. With a limited vocabulary, it’ll not be easy to understand most of the words. In addition, this will restrict the overall understanding of the text.

Reading is also what helps to grow and expand a person’s vocabulary. The more a person reads, the more language they’ll know. But while a child is still developing their vocabulary, they must be given a text at the right level – one where they’ll understand most of the words, but there are some new ones to challenge and grow their vocabulary.

What are vocabulary-building skills?

If you’ve seen how important having a solid vocabulary is, and you’re wondering, ‘what are vocabulary-building skills?’ then you’re in the right place. Here, we’ll go over what they are and how to use them to build that all-important vocabulary.

So, what are vocabulary-building skills?

Vocabulary-building skills are what children need to develop their growing vocabulary. Teachers typically encourage children to read widely and research. That’s what building a language is – seeing a new word, exploring what it means, and tucking it away to use later.

Here are some ways teachers will help children build their vocabulary skills.

1. Synonyms

Use words other than ‘said,’ ‘nice,’ ‘good,’ or ‘bad’ – we’ve all heard that, right? Using synonyms is a tangible way for children to expand beyond their basic vocabulary and add more to their high-frequency vocabulary.

It is a simple and easy way to expand a child’s vocabulary by looking at words they already know and finding ones that mean the same or have similar meanings. Matching games are often fun for children to develop their knowledge of synonyms.

2. Root Words, Prefixes, and Suffixes

Root words form the basis of many other words. So knowing lots of root words and the prefixes and suffixes that can be added to them will significantly expand a child’s reading and writing vocabulary. Not only will they be able to spell them, but if they come across a new word with a familiar root word, prefix, or suffix, they’ll be able to estimate its meaning.

3. Dictionary and Thesaurus Skills

Dictionaries and thesauruses are great tools to use when helping children to develop their vocabulary. Children should develop the habit of researching a new word in the dictionary whenever they encounter one. This way, they can learn its definition. They should also be encouraged to write down the word and its meaning to refer back to later.

4. Reading

Never underestimate the power of reading! Reading is the best and most effective way for children to grow their vocabulary. While they read, they’ll consolidate their understanding of familiar words while encountering new ones. They can use their knowledge of other words to estimate new meanings, then use their dictionary skills to learn the importance of unfamiliar words.

5. Repetition

It’s unlikely that anyone will remember a new word’s spelling, pronunciation, and meaning after seeing it once. That’s why it’s important to repeat a new word so that it sticks. Please write it down in a sentence, draw it in a fancy way, use word cards with it on to play a game, or write it down multiple times. These activities will help a new word to stay in a child’s growing vocabulary.

Different names for groups of fish depend on whether they are a single species or a mix of species.

A single group of fish is called a “shoal.”

A group of fish of the same species is called a shoal of fish. Why do we say school of fish? The school part of ” shoal of fish” comes from the old Dutch word ‘school,’ meaning ‘troop’ or ‘crowd.’ It also seems quite fitting, as the fish all work together, like a school class!

A group of mixed species of fish is called a “shoal.”

A group of fish, not the same species, is called a shoal of fish. The word ‘shoal’ comes from the Dutch word ‘school.’ A shoal of mixed fish doesn’t need to have similar characteristics either; shoals can be a mixture of fish, shrimp or jellyfish, etc. We know what you’re thinking – we wouldn’t want to swim too close to a jellyfish, either! However, when a mix of aquatic creatures floats together, it’s usually in a loose cluster, so bumping into one another isn’t a worry.

Some fish, such as gobies and clownfish, have evolved to develop skin that protects them from venomous stings, such as jellyfish or other malicious aquatic life.

Pods are herds of mammals, not fish.

You may have heard the phrase “a pod” when someone is talking about aquatic life. However, a pod is a herd of marine mammals such as dolphins, whales, walruses, or seals, not fish.

Why do fish swim in groups?

Fish swim in groups because there is safety in numbers. A big school of fish looks more potent than a single or small handful of fish! So the school moves as one, twisting and turning, looking like a big storm cloud in the water to confuse predators. It also helps them save energy because their group movement creates a slipstream force that propels them through the water more efficiently.

Other benefits of being in a fish group include the following:

• A better chance of finding food; where there’s a crowd – there’s something to eat!
• A better chance of finding a mate, or a ‘shoal mate’!

What are some facts about schools and shoals of fish?

1. The active verb for schools and shoals of fish is ‘shoaling’ and ‘schooling.’
2. For example, if any group of fish stays together for social reasons, they are ‘shoaling.’ On the other hand, if the group swims together in coordination, they are ‘schooling.’
3. In schools, each fish keeps the same space as its neighbor.
4. Schools of fish wouldn’t fit in your school classroom; they can have hundreds and thousands of members in one school!
5. The size of a shoal of fish can depend on how many aquatic creatures there are in their schools, but a shoal can be as little as six fish. Most fish in aquariums or captivity form shoals.

Home Economics: All aspects of household management, including cooking, are taught in a school environment.

At its core, Home Economics is about home management. It covers many subjects, including human development, personal and family finance, housing, and interior design, food science and preparation, nutrition and wellness, textiles and apparel, and consumer issues.

The history of Home Economics

Initially, Home Economics education aimed to emphasize the value of ‘women’s work’ by intellectualizing and professionalizing housework.

The study of Home economics began in the USA after the American Revolution. Before this, young women had been taught the values and practices of Home Economics at home. However, it changed in the 19th century as Home Economics was introduced as a school subject. Some forces that influenced this change were a general spirit of humanitarianism across America, faith in education, and a belief in equality for women.

The grant-led colleges and universities established by the Morrill Act of 1862 were the first institutions to provide a space for domestic sciences like Home Economics education to grow. These institutions focused on delivering liberal and practical instruction for the industrial working classes. Many of the courses offered in these colleges and universities catered directly to the lives and needs of their students. Amongst these courses were some specifically constructed to serve the needs of female students.

For several years, courses centered around domestic sciences were only offered at these grant-led colleges and universities, but by 1890, they were widely available in American public high schools.

Some of the domestic science courses on offer were:

• Cooking
• Sewing
• Millinery
• Laundering
• Home decoration
• Home sanitation
• Home Hygiene
• Home nursing.

A few years later, in 1899, a woman named Ellen H. Richards, an instructor of sanitary chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), organized a conference for people interested in applying science to household problems. Again, many chemistries, biology, economics, psychology, and sociology specialists were in attendance. As a result of this conference and the meetings that followed it, the American Home Economics Association was founded in 1909.

The American Home Economics Association pioneered the improvement of living conditions in the home and the community, as well as working on accepting Home Economics education.

Over time, as the social sciences developed, many of their findings were incorporated into Home Economics education. For example, while a lot of the original teaching for Home Economics was focused on food, clothing, and shelter, it expanded to include subjects like human relationships. Eventually, by 1935, Home Economics teachers were encouraged to look at all fields of study to find whatever would best help improve families and family life.

What is Home Economics as a subject?

Nowadays, the study of Home Economics looks much different from when it began in the 19th century. The focus is much less on how to do things than on why we do them. For example, students are still taught how to cook and sew, but now they are also shown how to buy the food they eat and the fabrics they need to make clothing.

The emphasis in Home Economics education has shifted from home-making skills to consumer education. There is also another significant shift happening in Home Economics right now. Whereas Home Economics education used to be centered around individual and family issues, it is now moving toward issues of national and international importance, such as overpopulation, urban poverty, and the development of emerging nations.

What is the importance of Home Economics?

Home Economics is essential to children’s education, as it will teach them valuable life skills.

Some of the skills and information that students will learn about food and nutrition know in Home Education include:

• Students are educated on the food system, from how it is grown to the manufacturing and selling process.
• They also learn about food nutrition, enabling students to be their healthiest version. Children must understand what is in their food to make informed decisions on what they choose to include in their diet.
• Students will also be educated on issues concerning ethical food production, including global food production and health-enhancing nutritional innovations.

While Home Economics was once just viewed as education on ‘women’s work,’ it now equips kids for several exciting career paths. Through learning Home Economics, students can go on to pursue a career as a:

• Nutritionist
• Dietitian
• Medical Professional
• University Lecturers
• Food technologist
• Food Writers
• Health Practitioner
• Food Product Developers
• Chefs
• Sports nutritionist

What are the seven areas of Home Economics?

Catherine E. Beecher was an American educator alive during the 19th century. She was known for her strong opinions on female education and was responsible for dividing Home Economics into seven main areas. Some of these areas are still present in Home Economics education today, but some have become outdated.

The seven main areas of Home Economics education are:

• Cooking: Food and cooking are an integral part of Home Economics. Learning how to prepare balanced, nutritious meals for themselves and others is a big step in encouraging students to be independent and take control of their health. They also learn about food safety and ways to prepare food to prevent diseases.
• Child development was more prevalent in early Home Economics education but is still a part of the curriculum. Students are taught about child development and how to respond correctly to children at various developmental stages.
• Education and community awareness: Home Economics was more heavily emphasized in the past when mothers took on a lot of responsibility for their children’s education. During these classes, students would learn the best ways to teach their children basic maths and reading skills before entering school. In addition, students would also learn moral and ethical lessons to develop community awareness.
• Home management and design: This area of Home Economics is centered around teaching the critical design elements for home decoration and maintenance. Cleanliness and organization were a big focus of this Home Economics area as these were almost always the responsibility of the women.
• Sewing and textiles: Sewing and textiles are still a part of modern Home Economics education. Initially, women needed to know how to sew to make and repair their clothes.
• Budget and economy: Learning how to handle money efficiently is a valuable part of Home Economics. Students learn how to buy food and other essentials on a budget, a skill that will serve them later in life.
• Health and hygiene: In classes on health and hygiene, students learn how to prepare and preserve foods to prevent diseases. Home Economics education also focused on adequately caring for sick people as young women needed to understand how to manage the suffering people in their community.

‘L’ blends are consonant blends where the second letter is ‘l.’ There are six different ‘l’ blends: bl, cl, fl, pl, gl and sl. There are many examples of typical ‘l’ blend words, including ‘blue,’ ‘clay,’ ‘plan’ and ‘slide.’ Children will learn about the ‘l’ blend during phonics.

What is a consonant blend?

Before we begin looking at the ‘l’ consonant blends, we need to know what a consonant blend is and how we can recognize one.

A consonant blend, or a consonant cluster as they’re sometimes called, is when two or more consonants are blended with no intervening vowels. What makes consonant blends different is that all the individual consonants retain their sound when the blend is heard. So, for instance, when we say ‘string,’ we can listen to all of the letters in the ‘str’ blend.

There are many different blends in the English language, and children will encounter many of them during their early phonics education.

What are the 6 ‘l’ consonant blends?

The ‘l’ consonant blends, or ‘l’ blends, are consonant blends with ‘l’ as their second letter. Many common words contain this ‘l’ blend, including ‘black,’ ‘flat,’ ‘plan,’ and ‘glass.’

There are six different ‘l’ consonant blends: ‘ bl,’ ‘cl,’ ‘fl,’ ‘pl,’ ‘gl,’ and ‘sl.’

Here are some examples of these ‘l’ blends in different words:

‘bl’ – blue

‘cl’ – ‘clam’

‘fl’ – ‘flat’

‘pl’ – ‘play’

‘gl’ – glue

‘sl’ – slide’

What is the difference between a blend and a digraph?

Now, before we look at some ‘l’ blend words, it’s time to address the elephant in the room: digraphs. While these two pieces of terminology might be pretty confusing at first, there are critical differences between the two:

• As we’ve discovered, a blend is where consonants are blended, but each keeps its sound.
• On the other hand, a digraph is where the different letters all represent a single phoneme or sound.

Let’s look at a couple of examples to explain what we mean by this. When we pronounce the word ‘clay,’ we can see that the ‘cl’ is an ‘l’ consonant blend since both the ‘c’ and the ‘l’ can be heard. When we say the word ‘shop,’ we can tell that the ‘sh’ is a digraph representing just one sound.

What words have ‘l’ consonant blends?

Now that we’re not in the dark about blends, ‘l’ consonant blends, and digraphs, it’s time to explore some ‘l’ blend words. We’ve compiled a handy list below that has 20 example words for each ‘l’ blend. Many of these words are high-frequency ones that kids might come across often:

/bl/	black blue blonde block bleed blink bleep blister blossom blanket	blank blast bliss blueberry blackboard blew blind bloom blizzard bleak
/cl/	clap click climb clown clip clock clamber cloth cloak class	clutter clot cliff cling client club claw clean clear cloud
/fl/	flower float fleece flag flood flip-flop flair flight flake flash	flaunt floor flood fly flat flick floss flannel flex flies
/pl/	place plumber play plant plug planet plan pluck plastic plush plough	placate plea plus plunder plain player platypus plumb plump pledge
/gl/	glass glare gloat glee glad glum glaze glue glance globe	glove glamour gloomy glory glide global glasses glitter gloss glitch
/sl/	slate slip slap sleep slug sleet slide slow slime slippers	sleigh sleeve slumber slight slope slang slim slogan slice sloth

What is a grapheme in phonics?

For starters, let’s get the most important question out of the way: what is a grapheme in phonics?

A grapheme is a type of symbol that represents a sound in writing. A grapheme can consist of one letter or a group of letters, and these have particular names. For example, a graphene containing two letters is called a digraph, but one with three is called a trigraph.

Some graphemes can carry the sound of various phonemes, and the same is true and vice versa. For instance, the phoneme /ear/ has four other graphemes to represent it: ‘ear,’ ‘eer,’ ‘ier,’ and ‘ere.’

It’s impossible to speak about graphemes without mentioning phonemes, as they are so inextricably linked. So, to help us understand ‘what is a grapheme in phonics?’, let’s delve into some examples…

What are some examples of graphemes?

To start with, let’s look at some single-letter graphemes in the word ‘dog’:

‘D-o-g’

Here, the phoneme is an /o/ sound, the same as the grapheme (the ‘o’ letter) that represents it. So, on either side of it, you have a ‘d’ representing the short /d/ sound and a ‘g’ grapheme representing /g/.

But, as we’ve discovered from learning about ‘what is a grapheme in phonics?’, graphemes can also consist of two or more letters. There are plenty of words in English that use digraphs, and here are a couple of examples:

‘W-a-sh’

‘Ch-a-se’

‘P-a-th’

In some cases, you might also come across split digraphs. These are digraphs with two vowels, the second being a silent ‘e,’ but where the vowels are split apart by an intervening consonant. Take the words ‘hug’ and ‘huge,’ for example. When we add an ‘e’ to the end of ‘hug,’ we end with a big word with the split digraph ‘u-e.’ When this happens, the ‘u’ in hug becomes a long /u/ sound!

As mentioned before, English also has 3-letter graphemes to represent single phonemes. Here’s an example of a three-letter grapheme (or trigraph) and where it might appear in English:

‘l-igh-t’

‘n-igh-t

‘r-igh-t’

When talking about ‘what a grapheme is in phonics?’, it’s important to look at the other end of the spectrum: four-letter graphemes. ‘Ough’ is an example of a 4-letter graphene that multiple phonemes can represent:

‘th-ough-t’

‘d-ough’

‘c-ough’

A full stop is a punctuation mark used to end a sentence. In American English, it’s known as a period.

When repeated three times, it becomes an ellipsis, which indicates omitted words.

Why do we use full stops?

Full stops are used to end a sentence. They indicate that a point has been made and that we’re ready to move on to the following sentence.

Like other punctuation marks, they show us how to read sentences and when they end. Imagine reading a book with no full stops – that’s just one

Without full stops, it would be difficult to identify where one sentence ends, and another sentence begins. The ideas might end up blending, muddling up the message. It makes reading a lot more complicated. That’s why we make it easy for the reader and use full stops.

We need to use full stops to show the reader where the sentence ends. Generally, the full stop should come once a whole idea has been expressed. This way, we can move on to describing the following opinion.

Full Stop Punctuation Rules

Although full stops are simple to use, there are some critical full-stop punctuation rules to remember.

Full stop at the end of a sentence.

Full stops are used to end a sentence when that sentence has expressed a complete thought or idea. They’re only used to finish sentences that are statements, not questions or exclamations.

For example:

• I hope to see you soon.
• I received your letter.
• I start work later this afternoon.

Full stop at the end of suggestions or commands.

Full stops can also be used to end sentences which are suggestions or commands. These types of sentences can also be called imperative sentences.

For example:

• Put your coat on the hook.
• Stick out your tongue.
• Let’s go to the park.

Full stop at the end of individual words.

Full stops are sometimes also used after individual words. For example, it could be when the words in a sentence are in an unusual format or a question-and-answer writing style.

For example:

• What is the capital city of France? A: Paris.
• She was as happy as she’d ever been here. Rested. Calm. Content.

Full stop after reported questions.

Full stops can also be used after reported questions instead of a question mark. A reported question is when the question is not being directly asked but is being written by the speaker.

For example:

• She asked me if I knew where I was.
• I wondered what time it was.

Full stops in abbreviations.

Full stops can also be used in abbreviations. Abbreviations are when a word or phrase is made shorter by blending them or omitting part of them.

For example:

• The party starts at 8 P.M.
• Dr. John D. Foster

If the abbreviation comes at the end of a sentence and usually uses a complete stop, we don’t need to add another full stop.

For example:

• We’ve got all the party stuff here: cakes, balloons, hats, etc.

• Full stop; we should start it with a capital letter.

The perfect form is a verb tense that consists of the present perfect, the past perfect, and the future perfect. We use it when talking or writing about actions completed in the present or a specific moment in the past or future.

What is past perfect tense with examples?

The past perfect tense form is a verb tense used to talk about actions and events completed at some specific point in the past. Here are some excellent and straightforward examples of the past perfect tense in action:

• Had met: She had met him before the party.
• Had left: The plane had left when I got to the train station.
• Written: I wrote the email Monday morning.
• Had wanted: Kate wanted to see the show but did not have money for the ticket.

Similarly to the present perfect tense, there are some variations of the past perfect tense to learn. The past tense consists of the following:

• simple past/past simple;
• past continuous/past progressive;
• past perfect.

The past perfect tense is usually formed by combining the past tense of ‘had’ with the past participle of the verb used. So, for example, ‘I bake’ in the present tense becomes ‘I had baked’ when you use the past perfect tense.

Further examples

‘We returned from holiday and found someone had stolen our wheelie bin.’

If you told someone this story, they would be able to figure out that the theft of your wheelie bin had occurred before your arrival back from holiday because the past perfect tense was used.

What are the other verb tenses?

• The present tense — is used to describe something currently happening.
• Future tense — describes events that will take place.
• Future perfect — describes events that will take place before another action.