Teaching Strategies, Tactics, and Methods

What is an autobiography?

An autobiography is a non-fiction literary format that is a self-written account of a person’s life. After all, the word ‘autobiography’ means self (auto), life (bio), and writing (graph). Some significant figures and celebrities have written autobiographies that we can see on the shelves of bookshops. However, anyone can write their life story as an autobiography.

Well-known or well-renowned people most commonly write this writing style. Autobiographies are registered as an opportunity to share their thoughts and experiences.

What is a biography?

A biography is a similar form of writing, as it also tells the story of an individual’s life. Again, a memoir is commonly written as a non-fiction recount of a famous person’s life. They include factual details as well as personal stories. Biography texts can also focus on an event in history.

What are the similarities between biography and autobiography?

Read the similarities between a biography and an autobiography below.

• Non-fiction: Both biographies and autobiographies are non-fiction texts. The definition of non-fiction is any writing created to relay the truth or information of actual events to the audience – it’s the opposite of fiction. It’s often misidentified as the statement of facts, but non-fiction can still form a narrative.
• Timeline: Both forms of writing are most commonly written in chronological order. This means that they write events from birth to death or the present day.
• Purpose: Although different people write biographies and autobiographies, they are written for the same purpose. These narratives aim to inform the reader about the facts, events, and experiences from someone’s life.
• Focus/ subject: Both are also commonly written for this purpose about a significant or notable person. For example, many actors, scientists, politicians, celebrities, and historical figures have biographies and autobiographies.

What is the difference between biography and autobiography writing?

Although both forms of writing are non-fiction recounts of an individual’s life, there are several differences between these two forms of writing. These include:

• Authors: The most significant difference between biography and autobiography writing is the author. Autobiographies are written by the individual that is featured in the text. On the other hand, biographies can be written about anyone and by anyone. This could suggest that biographies present less accurate representations of a person’s personal experiences.
• Permissions: Anyone can write an autobiography about themselves. However, things become trickier when a writer writes a biography about another person. Biographies can be registered with or without permission, and autobiographies require zero approval! That said, those created with permission may be more accurate or factual.
• Narrative voice: Another difference between biography and autobiography texts is the narrative voice. Autobiography texts are written in first-person narratives (using I and me). Meanwhile, biographies are written in third-person narratives. This third-person narrative is much less personal.

What is Autumn?

Autumn is the third of four seasons on Earth, defined as the transition from summer to winter. In the Northern Hemisphere, Autumn occurs between September and November, while in the Southern Hemisphere, Autumn takes place between March and June. During this time, temperatures will start to drop, daylight times will become shorter to prepare for the Winter Solstice, and trees will begin to shed their leaves.

What happens in the Autumn Months?

The autumn months in the Northern Hemisphere are typically September, October, and November. In the Southern Hemisphere, autumn occurs in March, April, and June. If you live near the equator, you won’t experience much autumn. This is because of the Earth’s position relative to the sun.

In the Northern Hemisphere, autumn is the period between the autumnal equinox (September 22-23) and the winter solstice (December 21-22). The autumnal equinox is one of two points in the year when the night and day are the same lengths (the other is the vernal equinox, which happens in spring). After this point, the days get shorter until the Winter Solstice, the year’s shortest day.

Traditionally in the Northern Hemisphere, the autumn months are the time of the Harvest season (otherwise known as Harvest Festival), meaning crops are ready to be harvested with the end of the warmer weather. This includes apples, tomatoes, carrots, beetroot, and pumpkins. Historically, Autumn was a crucial point of the year, as the volume and quality of crops produced would feed whole communities.

The autumn months have always been seen as a transition period and have been celebrated with rituals and festivals since ancient times. The Celtic festival of Samhain, initially celebrated in recognition of the shortening days and coming of the colder months, was honored at the halfway point between the autumnal equinox and winter solstice. In the 9th century, the Catholic Church moved the festival of All Saints’ Day to the same time, November 1st. Over time, these two celebrations combined into the most well-known and popular modern autumn tradition: Halloween!

Today, we recognize Autumn through its essential qualities, such as the change in weather, the browning of leaves on trees, and seasonal celebrations such as Halloween and American Thanksgiving.

Autumn Trees

Some types of trees lose their leaves in autumn. Usually, the first thing that comes to mind when thinking about autumn is the red-brown leaves falling from the trees and piling up on the pavements.

Trees lose their leaves in autumn because the amount of natural light they can get from the sun is reduced, and this causes the leaves on the trees to lose chlorophyll, a pigment present in all plants that is crucial for photosynthesis.

This causes the leaves on the trees to turn orange, yellow, or brown, resulting in a vibrant color change from the green leaves seen in the spring and summer. Leaves will also begin to fall from trees as they eventually die, and the tree will become dormant for the winter and wait for the increased heat and light of spring before the leaves begin to grow again.

What kind of trees loses their leaves in Autumn?

There are specific types of trees that lose their leaves in autumn, called deciduous trees. Most of the world’s deciduous trees will lose their leaves in autumn and grow them again in spring to reduce the energy they use in the winter when there isn’t much heat or light.

Examples of deciduous trees include oak, beech, and maple trees. Some trees do not lose their leaves during the autumn or winter. These are called coniferous trees. Examples of coniferous trees include pine, cedar, and spruce trees.

Which trees lose their leaves first in Autumn?

Many species of autumn trees lose their leaves at various points throughout the season, and some wait until winter to lose their leaves. Ash trees usually lose their leaves first, sycamore trees don’t drop their leaves until winter, and some oak trees will not drop their leaves until late winter when spring is not far off.

What are the critical features of Autumn?

1. Reduced natural daylight time means that the days are shorter than the nights. In other words, we will experience more hours of darkness than we will daylight. This happens as a result of the approach of the Winter Solstice, which is the shortest day of natural daylight in the year.
2. Leaves on the trees will turn yellow, orange, red, and brown during autumn. As Winter approaches, you’ll notice that the leaves on trees begin to fall.
3. Autumn is the season of crops and harvest. For farmers, this is one of the most critical times of the year.
4. Throughout this unique season, Autumn hosts significant celebrations. This includes Halloween, All Hallows’ Day, Bonfire Night (for the UK), Thanksgiving (for America), Michaelmas (usually celebrated in Ireland), and more.
5. In Autumn, we will also see the migration of birds. This means that birds who wouldn’t survive living in cooler climates migrate to a warmer location for the Winter months. Birds usually choose Autumn to migrate, so you can expect large bird flocks, such as ducks or geese, flying in the sky.
6. Autumn is also crucial for some animals, as this is the beginning of the hibernation season. During this time, animals such as hedgehogs and squirrels will gather food and make nests to keep them safe and fed during the cooler climates.

How to describe the weather in autumn

• Autumn is the season after summer and before winter. We describe autumn as beginning with the autumn equinox. The autumn equinox is when the sun passes directly over the equator causing the lengths of day and night to be equal. After this happens, the days are shorter, and the nights are longer.
• Autumn is described as ending when the winter solstice takes place. This is the shortest day of the year, and the longest day of the year takes place in June. Solstice is also when the sun is at the highest point in the sky and is seen from the North or South Pole.
• Describing the weather in autumn: the weather in autumn gets colder and usually windy. The hours of daylight and the hours of the night are the same, and then gradually, the nights are longer and the days shorter. The weather is characterized as being disruptive and frequently changing. For example, it could be warm and sunny in some places, but there is also the possibility of rain and snow in others.
• We also describe the weather in autumn as having lower temperatures and shorter days as we head into winter. Another prominent feature that people often describe is the shedding of leaves from trees! Autumn is also associated with Halloween, on the 31st of October!

Words or phrases that you might think of to describe autumn or describe the weather in autumn:

• Acorns are usually seen during autumn because many animals, such as squirrels, will fatten themselves up by eating lots of acorns. Some animals will do this before they hibernate for the winter.
• Falling leaves – autumn is characterized by the changing colors of leaves and trees shedding their leaves.
• Bale of hay or haystack – you may have heard of haystack rides at a harvest festival.
• Harvest – this is the time of year when food is harvested, and there may be harvest festivals.
• Chilly – it starts to get colder during autumn.
• Corn – corn, and wheat, among other crops, are harvested this time of year
• Pine cones – like acorns, pine cones are often seen this time of year
• Pumpkins – as autumn includes Halloween, pumpkins are often seen
• Halloween – Halloween is on the 31st of October and takes place during autumn.
• Scarecrows – scarecrows are another object often associated with autumn.

Fun Facts about Autumn

• It’s believed that the word ‘Autumn’ comes from the Etruscan word ‘autu’, which means ‘a change in season’.
• In the Irish (Gaeilge) language, September is known as ‘Meán Fómhair’, which can be translated to mean ‘middle of Autumn’ in English.
• In China, the Autumn Equinox is a celebrated moon festival.
• During Autumn, trees produce fresh conkers, used for centuries for games and competitions.
• The Irish invented the tradition of carving pumpkins for Halloween but used potatoes or turnips instead. It wasn’t until the 19th Century, when mass numbers of Irish communities moved to America pumpkins were used instead.
• During Autumn, the weather is more likely to include wind and rain as the temperature decreases.
• Red and purple leaves are actually caused by the presence of sugar being trapped inside the leaves, resulting in a vibrant color being produced.
• Those who live close to the equator will never experience Autumn, as the sunlight in these areas remains consistent.

What is a prefix?

A prefix is a small group or string of letters that can be attached to the start of a root word (or stem word). Prefixes are often thought of in conjunction with suffixes, which are small groups of letters that can be attached to the end of root words. For instance, the suffix ‘-able’ can be found in words like ‘comfortable’, ‘believable’, and ‘forgettable’.

What is the dis prefix?

While every prefix usually has its own impact on a root word, the dis prefix usually adds it turns the root word into the negative. For example, adding the dis prefix adds ‘not’ or ‘incorrectly’ to the root word. So, where does the dis prefix come from? The prefix ‘dis-‘comes from Latin, where it has the literal meaning ‘apart’ and is now commonly used to mean ‘opposite of’, ‘not’, ‘remove’ and ‘reverse’.

When applied to various parts of speech, meaning ‘ill’, ‘mistaken’, ‘wrong,’ ‘wrongly,’ ‘incorrectly,’ or simply negating. For example, mistrial, misprint, and mistrust.

Examples of the dis prefix in a sentence

Here are some examples of how you can include the dis prefix.

1. Appear vs Disappear

The sun appears over the sea in the morning and disappears behind the mountains in the evening.

2. Obey vs Disobey

The children disobey their teacher; they never do what he says. It’s only when they get older that they learn to obey.

3. Advantage vs Disadvantage

Not being able to speak English can be a disadvantage. To get a good job, English is an advantage.

4. Connected vs Disconnected

Sarah’s computer was connected to the internet, but then the signal was down, and she got disconnected.

Try out the dis prefix for yourself – Fill in the prefix gap!

Now that we know a little more about the dis prefix, try asking your students to fill in the gaps in these sentences with a dis prefix word.

• Where did Sam ___ to? He was here a moment ago!
• It’s usual for a kitten to ___ its owner. Be patient
• Don’t___ your students; it will demotivate them.
• Stealing is ___. Now be honest with me, did you take the CD?
• The children ___ their teacher; they never do what he says. It’s only when they get older that they learn to obey.

What words have the dis prefix??

So, now we have seen some examples of sentences with the dis prefix; what words have the dis prefix? Use these words and see what sentences your students can write for themselves

• Dislike – ‘Matt disliked strawberry ice cream; he preferred chocolate.’
• Disappear – ‘Click the box again, and it will disappear.’
• Disagree – ‘They often disagree on what to do that day.’

A kind of relative clause, a non-defining relative clause, tells us about the subject of a sentence, but the knowledge doesn’t help to define what we’re talking about.

The information included in the clause is extra: it’s not essential for understanding the sentence. For this reason, a non-defining relative clause might also be called a non-essential relative clause.

Take a look at this example:

• The garden, which was full of blossoming flowers, overlooked the hill.

In this sentence, the clause ‘which was full of blossoming flowers’ is a non-defining relative clause. It’s not essential for understanding the rest of the sentence, but it helps to paint a clearer picture. It doesn’t define the garden either – it just gives us something extra. If we removed the non-defining relative clause from the sentence, like so:

• The garden overlooked the hill.

It still makes complete grammatical sense.

How do you write a Non-Defining Relative Clause?

Non-defining relative clauses contain a few main things: a relative pronoun, a verb, and other optional elements, such as the verb’s subject. It would help if you used commas, hyphens, or brackets to split the non-defining relative clause from the rest of the sentence.

The clause most commonly appears in the middle or end of a sentence.

Which relative pronouns can you use in a Non-Defining Relative Clause?

It would be best if you used the following pronouns: who, whose, whom, which, and where.

How is a Non-Defining Clause different from a Defining Relative Clause?

As we’ve already established, the information in a non-defining relative clause is non-essential. So, that means the information in a defining relative clause is essential. Here are some other key differences between the two:

• In a defining relative clause, the relative pronouns who, whom, and which are often replaced with ‘that’ in spoken English. You can’t do this with a non-defining relative clause.
• In a non-defining relative clause, the pronoun must always be included. However, it can sometimes be removed from a defining relative clause.
• Defining relative clauses use no punctuation, whereas non-defining ones need to be separated from the other clause(s) using commas, hyphens, or brackets.

Here is an example to compare.

Non-defining	Defining	Explanation
She gave me a cupcake, which was red velvet flavored.	She gave me a cupcake that was red velvet flavored.	The first example gives extra information about a single cupcake. The relative pronoun ‘which’ is used, as well as a comma. The second example specifies which cupcake was given – implying that there are multiple cupcakes. The relative pronoun ‘that’ is used, and there’s no punctuation with the relative clause.

Non-Defining Clause Introductory Expressions

Sometimes, a non-defining relative clause can be introduced by an expression followed by a relative pronoun (whom or which). These are some of the phrases that you can use:

• all of;
• any of;
• some of;
• a few of them;
• much of;
• each of;
• both of;
• either of;
• half of;
• many of;
• much of;
• one of;
• two of;
• none of.

Here’s how you can use them in a sentence:

• I collect stamps, many of which are vintage.
• I have lots of cousins, some of whom live abroad.

As we all know, dance is a performing art form consisting of movement sequences.

These sequences can be pre-planned or improvised.

The importance of dance is that it can have both aesthetic and symbolic merit to the audience.

How to teach a dance routine

Here are some tactics to help you teach a dance routine to children as successfully as possible:

• Make sure everyone has warmed-up before you start teaching the dance routine to avoid any injuries.
• Break the routine into practicable chunks so the children can take one part at a time.
• Ensure all the kids understand that learning a dance routine takes practice and will require lots of repetition.
• Using visual cues, videos of the choreography, or someone dancing with the children will help them understand how you hope their dance looks.
• Make it exciting! Use a theme for the dance or link the choreography to a well-know story to help engage the children and keep their interest through the more difficult parts.
• Encourage them to assess both themselves and each other. If they can suggest where others can improve, they will begin to understand the choreography better themselves.

The history of dance

Continue to read this teaching wiki to discover a brief dance history you can tell your children to get them excited for their dance lessons!

It’s believed that the oldest proof of the existence of dance is from paintings found in caves in India, created 9000 years ago. These paintings depict communal drinking, religious rites, hunting, childbirth, burials, and dancing.

By looking at the tomb paintings that survived Egyptian times, it was believed that priests used musical instruments and dancers to show important events, stories of gods, and cosmic patterns of moving stars and the sun.

In Ancient Greece, the public often enjoyed dance, most notably just before the Olympic Games, as early as the 8th century B.C!

The dance developed further over the following centuries, becoming an activity for everyone, not just to signal a ritual or event. A painting discovered in 1400 B.C.showed people dancing to entertain each other, supported by musicians.

This kind of entertainment continued to be refined, and at the beginning of the Renaissance, ballet became a popular form of dance for the wealthy to enjoy. During this time, new music forms were created, changing fashion and dance styles. The tendency to jump and skip in dance became popular after the French Revolution when the famous waltz was created.

The waltz inspired the creation of many complicated two-person ‘ballroom dances’ that children will recognize today. These paved the way for more modern dances in the 20th century, such as the foxtrot, tango, and swing.

Types of dance genres

As you’ve read, dance has changed a lot since the time we understand it to have been created (9000 years ago!) As a result, there are many different types of dance genres in today’s society, with more being developed all the time. However, new dance styles always draw upon features of dance genres that have come before – whether they use a particular kind of music or beat, have strict choreography, or are open to interpretation.

Here are some of the most popular types of dance genres that children will see performed today:

• Ballet – Ballet was developed during the Italian Renaissance and is a choreographed dance set to classical music. Ask your class if they’ve heard of Swan Lake!
• Contemporary – Contemporary dance was created in the mid-twentieth century. It draws on classical, modern, and jazz dance styles and is the most popular form of dance studied today.
• Tap Dance – Tap dancing is often performed as part of musical theatre and focuses on timing, with dancers often performing in unison.
• Ballroom – Ballroom dance is a partner dance like the waltz, tango, and foxtrot. It is a popular form of competitive dance, with competitions held worldwide.
• Hip Hop – Hip Hop or Street dance dates back to the late 1970s and draws upon the fashion and music of America at the time. Street dance can be competitive, with groups challenging each other to a dance battle.
• Jazz – Jazz dancing is known for its spontaneous and dramatic body movements. The Lindy Hop and the Charleston dance are popular types of jazz dance.
• Folk Dance – Folk dancing is used worldwide to convey emotion and traditional stories or legends.
• Irish Dance – Irish dancing requires precision and excellent timing as all dancers perform intricate footwork together – often in a line.

What is creative dance?

Creative Dance is a contemporary form of dance that combines movement and artistic expression without needing specific training. Typically, creative dance focuses on developing motor skills and emotional expression, as opposed to the aesthetics-based focus of dance in more traditional structured settings.

This is why creative dance is explored with children when they are young – it allows people of all abilities to participate and succeed.

Creative dance combines all different dance styles, and children can create their dance personalities and choreography.

Why is creative dance important?

Creative dance is essential for children to learn because it has positively affected social and cognitive functioning. This helps improve children’s confidence and academic performance.

Another benefit of creative dance for children is that it helps them become more spacially aware. They’ll improve their gross motor skills and find they can move with control and balance more quickly.

Children will find that they can express themselves through creative dance, which will be particularly beneficial to those who struggle to communicate clearly or confidently.

What elements are covered in creative dance?

Within creative dance, performers will consider the following:

• Space
• Time
• Force
• Body

They can then develop these elements into different speeds, shapes, rhythms, and directions.

At school, while your children may learn about the different types of dance, their PE lessons may focus more on designing their movements and controlling their bodies. Rather than learning specific ballroom or contemporary dances – they may begin to understand how emotion is portrayed through dance and learn to perform a routine they have created with their peers. In addition, children interested in specific types of dance genres often have lessons outside school time.

Celebrate all the different types of dance genres with one of our fantastic teacher-created display packs. They contain everything you need to create an eye-catching display and draw your class’s attention to the critical vocabulary and forms of movement they will be learning throughout their lessons.

Who was Moses?

Moses is considered one of the most important religious leaders in world history. Islam, Judaism, and Christianity all believe Moses to be an important prophet of God and the founder of monotheistic beliefs (the belief in only one God).

What is the Story of Moses?

The story of Moses began in the Book of Exodus in the Bible. The Hebrew descendants of Joseph (the Israelites) had started to increase in the land of Egypt, and the Pharaoh of the time was worried they would try to take power, so he enslaved them.

When Moses was born, the Pharaoh had decided all male children must be killed so they could not grow up to fight him. Moses’ mother was terrified and attempted to hide her male baby for three months. Then, fearing she wouldn’t be able to hide him much longer, she set him adrift in a basket along the river Nile, hoping the power of God would save him.

Moses floated down the river where the Pharaoh’s daughter was bathing. She rescued him and named him ‘Moses.’ It was believed that the word ‘Moses’ meant to ‘draw out.’ She raised him as a son, and he grew up in the Egyptian palace.

One day he witnessed an Egyptian beating an enslaved Hebrew person so severely that he lost his temper and killed the Egyptian. This meant he had to flee the country as people knew what he had done.

He fled to Midian, where he rescued the daughters of a high priest. As a token of gratitude, he was gifted one of the daughters, Zipporah, as a wife. He lived happily as a shepherd in Midian for forty years.

One day he saw a burning bush that didn’t seem to be consumed by the fire. He heard the voice of God with a message asking him to save the people enslaved in Egypt and lead them to the Promised Land.

At first, Moses refused God and asked him to send someone else, but God insisted and said he would have his brother Aaron with him and supernatural powers to help him convince the Pharaoh that he spoke for God.

Moses returned to Egypt and asked the Pharaoh to free those enslaved. He was unhappy with this request and didn’t want to lose all the people he enslaved, so he said no. This made God very angry, and so he sent ten plagues to the land of Egypt.

The tenth plague, the one that killed all firstborn sons (including the pharaoh’s), made him eventually free the enslaved people. However, the Israelites all left Egypt and took lots of jewels and treasure. This angered the Pharaoh, and he sent an army after them.

As the Israelites met the Red Sea, they realized they were trapped. God told Moses to lift his staff, and when he did, the Red Sea parted to let them through. However, the sea closed on and killed the Egyptian army following them.

The Israelites were free but had nowhere to live and no food, so God made sure they found white food that tasted like honey on the floor when they woke up. When they needed water, Moses could strike his staff on the rocks to make it flow.

It took three months of traveling for them to reach Mount Sinai. God asked Moses to meet him at the top. Moses climbed up in a thunderstorm and waited for God.

God gave Moses 10 important laws known as the Ten Commandments that would tell his people how to live.

What is an Environment?

When hearing the word ‘environment,’ most people think of rainforests, oceans, and climate change. While none of these thoughts are incorrect, the broad definition of ‘environment’ is much more comprehensive.

‘Environment’ refers to the surroundings or conditions in which a living organism (people, animals, plants) finds itself.

Why is the Environment Important?

In short, our environments keep us alive. If our ecosystems were damaged and unable to support us with healthy air, food, and water, we would struggle to survive.

Environments have a significant impact on the survival of those living within them. For example, if a domain is too hot or cold for an animal, and relocation isn’t possible, the animal wouldn’t be able to survive. This simple principle applies to people, animals, and plans.

Over time life has adapted through reproduction to survive in different environments. For example, giraffes may not have always been able to reach the leaves from the tops of trees, but as the result of a cycle of reproduction and survival, they now can. For more information on this process, look at our evolution page.

One of the critical threats to our natural environment is climate change brought about by various forms of pollution, such as burning fossil fuels. The consequences of climate change are drastic changes to our ecosystems, rendering them unable to continue supporting life.

What are Natural, Constructed, and Managed Environments?

There are many ways to categorize the different ecosystems and environments, breaking these larger classifications into smaller categories. However, there are three commonly described settings: natural, constructed, and managed.

Natural Environments

Natural environments refer to places that occur naturally without human interference. Some examples of natural environments include rivers, mountains, forests, and beaches. These environments’ features, such as soil, vegetation, and rocks, are also naturally developed.

Naturally occurring eco-systems also fall into this category and can be further classified as terrestrial or aquatic. Aquatic ecosystems refer to the ocean, rivers, and lakes (saltwater and freshwater), whereas terrestrial ecosystems refer to tundra, forests, grasslands, and deserts.

Constructed Environments

Constructed environments are manufactured, meaning humans create them. These environments couldn’t occur naturally and are usually built to make people’s lives easier. Some examples of constructed environments are bridges, roads, houses, schools, and train stations. These kinds of domains are usually built from constructed features, such as walkways and fences, but can also include some natural elements, such as grass and trees.

Managed Environments

Managed environments include naturally occurring features such as trees, grass, and water, but they have also been handled by humans and have features to reflect this. An example of this could be a park. It’s natural, boasting lovely stretches of grass and trees, but it may also have signs, paths, bridges, and lighting to make it more accessible to people. Other examples of managed environments include gardens and farms.

Caring for the environment

As humans, we can do different things or change in our everyday lives to help care for the environment more. Helping to care for the environment more and taking time to think about the consequences of particular actions can benefit the planet and our environment.

Here are some brilliant tips to help with caring for the environment:

• Cut down on water usage. For example, when brushing your teeth, don’t leave the water running; only have the tap on when needed. Or try taking showers rather than baths.
• Save on plastic by using reusable bags.
• Try limiting the use of cars, and try walking or cycling where possible.
• Save electricity by trying energy-saving bulbs and ensuring lights are switched off when nobody’s in the room.
• Recycle when you can, it can save waste going to landfills.
• Try to be sustainable with your clothes. Recycle or donate them; perhaps try and find a new item of clothing from a charity shop to save on clothes going to landfill.

Try taking some of these on board for a better, more sustainable future.

What are some examples of relative clauses?

Relative clauses add information to sentences using a relative pronoun, such as who, that, or which. Here are some examples of relative clauses where we have highlighted the relative clause.

• She lives in York, which is a cathedral city.
• That’s the girl who lives near the school.
• Sam liked his new chair, which was very comfortable.

Relative clauses can be categorized into two groups:

• Defining relative clauses
• Non-defining relative clauses

What is a Defining Relative Clause?

Defining relative clauses gives essential information to determine the subject we’re discussing. For this reason, they’re sometimes called necessary relative clauses because their data is critical to understanding the sentence’s meaning.

Unlike a non-defining relative clause, we need to know the information included in the defining relative clause to make sense of the rest of the sentence.

Take a look at this relative clause example:

• People who like books often go to the library.

In this sentence, ‘that like books’ is the relative clause. It’s classed as a defining relative clause because this information is essential for clarifying the sentence’s meaning. For example, if we remove this relative clause, the sentence reads like this:

• People often go to the library.

The sentence still makes sense grammatically, but the meaning of the sentence itself changes. We need the clause ‘who likes books’ because it defines the subject, the ‘people’ we’re talking about. Without the defining relative clause, the sentence is vague and unclear – who are these ‘people’ we’re talking about?

Further defining relative clauses examples:

• I like to sit in the garden when it’s sunny.
• I have no idea why that happened.
• Cats are animals that have soft fur and sharp claws.

What Relative Pronouns are used in a Defining Relative Clause?

Relative pronouns appear at the start of all relative clauses, both defining and non-defining.

In a defining relative clause, we use one of the following relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, where, when, why, and that.

Using ‘that’ instead of ‘who,’ ‘whom,’ or ‘which.’

In spoken English, we often replace the relative pronouns ‘who,’ ‘whom,’ or ‘which’ with ‘that.’ ‘Whom’ is also considered to be very formal, so it’s rarely if ever, used when speaking. You can use ‘who’ or ‘that’ instead.

Here are some examples where ‘who,’ ‘whom,’ and ‘which’ have been replaced with that:

• The book that I read was a mystery thriller. (instead of ‘which’)
• The girl that I walk to school with drops by at 8 am. (instead of ‘who’)
• The teacher that helps me with my homework is charming. (instead of ‘whom’)

Omitting the Relative Pronoun

Sometimes, we can remove the relative pronoun from the defining relative clause. This helps to make the sentence sound less clunky and more natural.

We can only omit the relative pronoun when it’s the object of the clause, not the subject.

Here’s an example where we can omit it:

• The books that they read were very informative.
• The books they read were very informative.

And one where we can’t:

• The girl that lives next door plays the guitar.

In the first example, the books are the object, and ‘they’ is the subject. We can remove the relative pronoun ‘that,’ and it makes sense.

In the second, the girl is the subject, so we can’t remove the relative pronoun ‘that.’ If we did, it wouldn’t make grammatical sense. ‘The girl who lives next door plays the guitar’ is just a jumble of words!

What is the definition of a landform for kids?

A landform is a naturally-occurring feature on the Earth’s surface, usually with a recognizable shape like a valley or mountain. They range in size and can be small, like hills, or larger, like mountains.

They are geographical features found worldwide and affect a place’s ecosystem, climate, and weather.

It’s not just Earth where these features are found. Scientists have identified similar structures on different planets, including Mars and Venus!

How are landforms formed?

The landforms we see on Earth have been formed over many years through the movement of tectonic plates or the denudation process, including weathering and erosion.

Weather conditions and natural disasters like erupting volcanoes can also affect these features.

What are the different types of landforms?

Mountains – Breathtaking to look at, mountains are an exciting type of landform whose height can influence the weather conditions in the surrounding area. They’re popular among thrill-seekers looking to try adventure sports like climbing and skiing.

When several mountains are nearby, we call this a mountain range. Examples include the Andes and the Alps.

How are mountains made?

Mountains are made from elevated portions of the Earth’s crust. To qualify as a mountain, landforms must be 300 meters high.

Mountains are sometimes formed when pieces of the Earth’s crust smash together, also known as tectonic plates. This is how the Himalayan mountains were created. On the other hand, volcanic mountains are formed by molten rock erupting deep within the Earth.

Hills are a similar type of landform to mountains, except they’re generally considered to be smaller and less steep.

Valleys – A valley is a landform found between two hills or mountains. They can be U-shaped or V-shaped and sometimes have a river flowing through them. Valleys are often green and luscious, with fertile soil and vegetation.

How are valleys formed?

Valleys are created by water running down the side of mountains, wearing away the rock and soil until deep grooves are formed.

Plateaus – Plateaus are areas of high, flat land. They have steep sides like a mountain but are topped with a flat surface, like a table. They are found on every continent and take up a third of the Earth’s land!

There are two types of the plateau: dissected plateaus and volcanic plateaus. Like mountains, dissected plateaus are formed by tectonic plates, while volcanic plateaus result from repeated, small volcanic eruptions over time.

Plains – A plain is a vast area of flat land. Like plateaus, plains are found on all seven continents. One common plain type is grassland, an area mainly covered with grass. This isn’t the only primary type; some deserts and forests are plains.

Plains can be formed in many ways, including volcanic eruptions and the movement of rivers.

Did you know that cities tend to be built on plains? Flat surfaces make building roads, houses, and other buildings easier.

A Newton meter is a piece of equipment used to measure the forces acting on an object. It is also known as a spring balance or spring scale.

Newton meters contain a spring connected to a metal hook. The spring stretches accordingly when a force is applied to the hook. The bigger the force used, the more the spring will stretch.

Newton meters come in different shapes and sizes. They have different-sized springs to measure objects of different weights. When using Newton meters, you must make sure that you are using the correct sized spring to ensure the reading of how many Newtons it is, is as accurate as possible.

Newton meters that can withhold high-load capacities are frequently suspended from crane hooks and are sometimes referred to as crane scales. Newton meters used within the household are referred to as fish scales.

To understand what a Newton Meter is and why they are used, we should first look at what a Newton is and learn a little more about the history of Newton.

So, what are Newtons?

A Newton (N) is the international metric unit of force. One Newton is the force required to accelerate an object with a mass of one Kilogram, one meter per second squared. In simpler terms, one Newton is equal to one-kilogram meter per second squared.

Newton meters measure the forces acting against any given object. The greater the force, the larger the number of newtons shown on the newton meter.

The forces acting on an object still or on the ground are balanced. These acting forces are measured in Newtons (N), but they balance each other out, which is why the object does not move.

If an object is in motion (i.e., if it’s moving), then one force has to be stronger and, therefore, the predominant force compared to the other forces acting upon it. This means that the forces acting on the object are not balanced.

The force acting on an object (when the forces are unbalanced) is called the resultant force. For example, the forces acting on a cyclist to help them move forward. The force of the cyclist pushing forward on the pedals is stronger than the forces acting on the cyclist to stop its movement. Therefore, the cyclist moves forward.

The size of the resultant force is measured in Newtons (N).

Who Invented Newton Metres?

Sir Isaac Newton came up with the theory of gravity and the idea that forces cause objects to move. He was born in 1643 and worked in many areas of mathematics and physics throughout his lifetime. He developed his theories about gravity and gravitation when he was only 23 years of age.

Newton’s ideas and theories were some of the most integral discoveries in the history of science. His theory of classical mechanics was one of the most significant achievements in science ever.

However, he did not technically invent the Newton meter – it was named after him and the ideas and theories he developed about gravity and forces.

Richard Salter made the first Newton meter (or spring scale) in Britain in 1770. You may recognize the name ‘Salter’ as it is one of the UK’s most popular weighing scale brands, even hundreds of years after Richard Salter first introduced his company.

Some people still use Newton meters as a household weighing scale, although they are known not to be very accurate, so maybe stick to regular scales…

More About Sir Isaac Newton

Sir Isaac Newton advanced previous scientists’ theories and ideas. Without these last scientists, he would not have been able to make the discoveries that he went on to make.

Sir Isaac Newton organized his theories into three fundamental laws of motion:

1. Something will remain still unless a force is applied to it (for example, a football on the ground won’t move unless you kick it.) This law also states that if an object moves, it will continue to move in the same direction at the same speed unless a different force is applied.
2. Acceleration (speeding up) occurs when a force is applied to an object. The heavier the object, the more force needed to be used to accelerate the thing.
3. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. This means that another force will act in the opposite direction for each force applied to an object.

Newton also conducted light and color experiments, influencing our understanding of colors today. For example, Newton came up with the color spectrum and proved how light and refraction affected what color an object is seen as.

How to Use a Newton Meter or Spring Scale

Newton meters are straightforward to use. There is a metal hook on the Newton meter that you use to attach the object that you would like to measure force for.

There is also such a thing as a digital Newton meter. This acts the same as a regular Newton meter but digitally presents the results of the Newtons acting on the object you are measuring.

There are different types of spring scales that have other strength springs. The weaker springs are only designed to hold and measure the force of lighter objects, whereas the heavier springs require a lot of weight and force to be effective.

You must select the correct spring scale/newton meter for the appropriate item you are trying to use.

Top tip: ensure the indicator on your Newton meter is on ‘zero’ when you start measuring the Newtons of an object. If it’s not on ‘zero,’ your results will likely be inaccurate.

How Do You Calculate Measure Force Using a Newton Meter/Spring Scale?

Newton meters are often used in science classes in Key Stage 3 to help teach students about forces.

Using a newton meter on an object (like a rucksack full of school books, for example) will show you the forces acting on this object.

As Newton theorized, every object has at least two forces acting on it at any given time. For a thing that is still and attached to a Newton meter, there is the tension (T) force of the scale which acts upward from the object (i.e., pulls it up), and the weight (g) of the object which acts downward (i.e., pulls it down) from the thing. This can be visualized in a diagram:

Because the forces are equal and the object is still, the tension and the weight are equal, so the object’s weight will be balanced. Below is an example of a thing where two forces (T and g) are acting on it and are balanced.

We must remember that not all objects have equal forces acting upon and against them. You can still use a Newton meter when unbalanced forces are acting on an object. When the forces acting on an object are not balanced, you are usually required to work out the overall forces acting on an object and the more prominent force at play.