Teaching Strategies, Tactics, and Methods

What is the brain?

The human brain is an organ that lives inside the skull. It is about the same size as your fists and weighs about 1.3kg. It is covered in wrinkles and protected by fluid inside the head. It’s sometimes nicknamed the ‘grey matter’ because it is grey.

You might not think about your brain often, but it’s pretty amazing when you think about it. The human brain is in charge of everything your body does – even the things you don’t think about, like breathing or keeping your heart pumping. It’s like a potent computer, storing memories and controlling our thoughts and bodies.

The brain is the signal box that receives information from the rest of your body. Every time you use any of your senses, all that information is transmitted to your brain, where it is processed. It is also where all of our thinking and feeling take place. For example, people sometimes talk about the heart as the place where our feelings happen – like when they talk about heartbreak – but actually, it all takes place inside the brain!

The brain explained for kids

The brain is part of the nervous system. Along with the spinal cord, it connects to all the nerves that travel throughout the body. So, for example, when you touch something hot or see something beautiful, that information travels through your body and into your brain. This helps us understand what is happening around us, informing us how to respond.

The brain also uses those nerves to tell our muscles what to do. This is how we move. Our brain sends the signals, our muscles receive them, and suddenly we walk, talk, or stretch.

The nervous system is made up of millions of neurons, which are microscopic cells. They can join together with other neurons to form connections called pathways that transmit information. These pathways can get stronger the more that they are used.

For example, learning how to ride a bike shows how neurons form pathways. The first time someone gets on a bike, they must think carefully about how they move. How do they pedal? How do they balance? It’s a lot of hard work. But after a lot of practice, it becomes much more manageable. Eventually, they don’t have to think about it all. That’s because the neurons have successfully formed a pathway that tells their body how to ride the bike without consciously thinking about it.

The brain also keeps working while we are asleep. It controls our dreams and sorts through everything we have learned and experienced that day to decide what is essential and what we can forget.

The brain keeps growing until we are about 20 years old. This doesn’t mean that we stop being able to learn new things, though! The neurons in the brain can keep forming pathways throughout our lives.

Doctors and scientists still don’t understand everything there is to know about the brain. This is partly because it is complicated and partly because it’s pretty tricky to experiment on something that keeps us alive and functioning. So the brain still has lots of secrets hidden inside it.

Main parts of the brain and their functions

Cerebrum

This is the most significant part of the brain. There are two halves of the cerebrum on each side of your head. It controls your voluntary muscles, which move when you want them to, giving you motor skills. For example, your cerebrum tells you how to proceed when playing sports or dancing.

It is also the home of your memory and logic. You have short-term memory, which helps you remember things that happened recently (like the name of someone you have just met), and long-term memory, which stores memories from long ago (like your tenth birthday party). The cerebrum also helps you with reasoning and making decisions.

Cerebellum

The cerebellum is much smaller than the cerebrum. It controls your muscles, movement, and coordination. Without it, you wouldn’t be able to stand upright, balance, or move.

It also helps us to learn how to do things with our bodies so that we no longer have to think about them. If you’ve learned how to ride a bike, your cerebellum stores all of the information so that each time you get on a bike isn’t like the first, shaky time. So it is an essential part of the brain!

Brain stem

The brain stem is also known as the medulla. It connects your brain to the spinal cord. It controls lots of involuntary muscles and processes. For example, the brain stem keeps your heart beating to move blood around your body. It also tells your stomach to digest your food to give you energy.

The brain stem also receives all of the information sent from nerves in the rest of the body. Then, it decides what to do with them. This is a big task – we have so much information whizzing around our bodies all the time that even a supercomputer couldn’t keep up with it.

How to keep your brain in shape

• Drink lots of water to keep your brain hydrated.
• Work out at the Brain Gym! This is a program of physical movements and exercises that help you to engage your brain. It can help to reduce stress and improve your ability to learn.
• Try mental workouts, too. Things like puzzles and reading are great for keeping your brain fit and strong. And you don’t even need to get off the sofa to get a great brain workout!

• Eat healthy foods. The brain needs lots of vitamins and minerals to function correctly. So fatty fish, like salmon, is delicious, like blueberries and broccoli. Maybe not all at the same time, though.
• Look after your head! Make sure to wear a helmet when you ride your bike or scooter. Hurting your head can also be bad for your brain, so keep it safe.
• Get plenty of sleep. Although your brain never entirely switches off, sleep gives your brain a chance to rest and remove toxins from your brain that have built up during the day. A lack of sleep can make you grumpy and distracted. It can also make you more likely to get sick because it affects how well your immune system works.

Fun facts about the brain for kids

• Your brain produces enough electricity to power a lightbulb. You might have seen cartoons where lightbulbs pop up above someone’s head to show that they have had an idea. Well, your brain could light up a lightbulb!
• The brain is 80% liquid. This is why we have to drink lots of water. If we get dehydrated, our brains don’t work as well.

• The brain is divided into two halves, called hemispheres. The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body and vice versa. So, for example, if you are left-handed, the right side of your brain is in charge.
• Every time you learn something new, your brain changes its structure. This is because the neurons form new pathways to make accessing and using new information faster and easier.
• Neurons are incredibly speedy – they transmit information to and from the brain at more than 240kmph. This is because sometimes our bodies need to react very quickly to situations. For example, if you touch something straight out of the oven, you will flinch before you have even thought about it. These speedy reflexes help to keep us safe.
• The brain uses around 20% of its energy from food and oxygen. So it needs a lot of power to do everything it needs to keep us going.
• Humans have the most significant brain-to-body ratio of all animals. This might be part of why we have been able to invent and create so many complicated things, like cars and rockets.

The Greek God of Love – Eros

Find out all about the infamous Greek God of Love in this teaching wiki; you will learn all about whom the Greek God of Love was, his symbols, how the Greek God of Love is still current today, and more!

Are you teaching children about Greek Gods and Goddesses? This teaching wiki about Eros, the Greek God of Love, can help you introduce the topic to your class!

The ancient Greeks had strict beliefs that guided them through life and helped them navigate the world. They believed in a multitude of Gods and Goddesses, and each one stood for a different purpose, and the ancient Greeks would also worship these other Gods and Goddesses for specific reasons.

The ancient Greek religion was based on the belief that 12 Gods and Goddesses ruled the human realm from Mount Olympus in Greece.

Who is the Greek God of Love in Greek Mythology?

Eros is the Greek God of Love in Greek Mythology; he is also known as Cupid in Roman Mythology and is depicted as a primordial deity who emerges self-born at the beginning of time and is said to be the fourth God to come into existence. He is the constant companion of Aphrodite, and some have speculated that Aphrodite is the mother of Eros.

To elaborate on this further in the Primordial myths, according to Hesiod, Eros, the God of Love, was born from Chaos and was witness to the beginning of the creation of the cosmos; Eros also blessed the union of Gaia and Uranus after this the universe was born.

In later sources, Eros is depicted as the son of Aphrodite and Ares. He is shown as a beautiful young man with mischievous wiles, running around with his bow and arrow and often leaving a trail of love and drama in his wake. The Greek God of Love embodied beauty, youth, and love!

Eventually, Eros was inevitably duplicated by writers and poets. You may know this duplication as Cupid, and he was used a lot in Roman literature. However, Eros reminded prominent in mythology.

In early literature and art, Eros was depicted as the mischievous but fiercely loyal child of Aphrodite. One of his most recognizable symbols is a bow and arrow, which he can be seen wielding in many early paintings. One of the most famous works of art of the God of Love is an ancient vase with a winged Eros playing the flute, either as a child or a young man.

The Symbols of Eros

Although his most famous symbol is the bow and arrow, Eros had many different symbols; here’s a handy list of them all!

• Bow and Arrow
• Flute or Lyre
• Hare
• Roses

Even today, Euros or the Roman depiction of Cupid is shown shooting arrows at lovers and throwing roses!

Eros in Mythology

Eros was widely known for playing matchmaker and playing with his subjects, as no one person was immune to his arrows. He would randomly fire his arrows, making men, heroes, and even Gods into a maddened love-drunk frenzy! Even though he was the God of Love, he used his powers to cause chaos amongst people and their passion!

One of the most famous stories in Greek mythology, including Eros, is the story of The Hero Jason. Euros willed princess Medea to fall in love with the hero named Jason to help him complete the quest of The Golden Fleece. The God of Love was asked to do this by the Goddess Hera, and this isn’t the only time Eros used his powers on a hero or mortal under the instruction of a God or Goddess.

Modern Day Eros

The God of Love re-emerged in the renaissance; he appears in many works of art, either depicted with Aphrodite or by himself. Then in the 18th Century, as Valentine’s Day grew in popularity, Eros, the Greek God of Love, became a holiday symbol. Images of Eros were on boxes of chocolates, cards, roses, and other Valentine’s Day gifts.

In today’s culture, Euros is portrayed very differently from the handsome, devious man that caused chaos amongst man and gods, like with his bow and arrow. Likewise, passion has very little to do with the revamped version of the God of Love; he is now depicted as a little cherub or winged baby related to romantic love rather than passion and desire.

Who are the seven Gods of Love?

It might surprise you that in Greek mythology, there are numerous Gods and Goddesses of love! Here’s a comprehensive list of them and which parts of love they have power over!

• Eros – God of Love and Desire.
• Erotes – God of Love and Fertility.
• Pothos – God of Passion.
• Imeros – God of Intense Desire.
• Anteros – God of Reciprocal Love.
• Hymenaios – God of Marriage.
• Aphrodite – Goddess of Beauty and Lust.

Most of these Gods are lesser known, with Eros and Aphrodite being the most popular in Greek mythology. Still, Erotes, the God of Love and Fertility, and Anteros, the God of Reciprocal Love, are the twin brothers of Eros!

Other stories of Eros

Eros and Psyche – Psyche was a beautiful mortal princess; her beauty was so mesmerizing that it caught the attention of everyone, including Aphrodite. The Goddess grew jealous of Psyche and her many suitors and, in a jealous rage, commanded Eros to make her fall in love with the ugliest man in the world. While following his orders, the arrow grazed his skin; Eros was not immune to the power of his arrows, this made him fall madly in love with the princess, and every day he would visit her in secret, never revealing his true identity. Eros told Psyche she could never look him in the eye, but egged on by her jealous sister, Psyche eventually did. In doing so, Eros felt betrayed by her and left, never to return, leaving the princess heartbroken.

Eros and Apollo – Apollo was a Greek god and an excellent archer; he bullied and mocked Eros for being small in stature and for his arrows. He boasted and regaled tall tales of how his arrows shot down his enemies precisely, while Eros shot his haphazardly and aimed at anyone. Unfortunately for Apollo, the God of Love wasn’t going to take these insults, so he shot one of his arrows at Apollo, which meant he would fall in love with the first person he laid eyes on. So Apollo falls in love with the Nymph Daphne, and as if to add insult to injury, Eros then shoots Daphne with a lead arrow to make her immune to Apollo’s advances; she, therefore, rejects Apollo, breaking his heart.

Euros and The Constellation Pisces – Aside from Eros’ love stories, the Greek God of Love also appears in mythology under the zodiac sign of Pisces. It was said that a revolt against Zeus occurred when Typhon, The Giant, and Echidna decided to storm Mount Olympus. The monstrous form of Typhon The Giant caused the Gods to flee in terror. Most of whom escaped to the safety of Egypt. Over in Syria, it was here that Eros and Aphrodite encountered the advancing Typhon. There was no time to flee like the other Gods, so Eros and Aphrodite transformed into two fish to ensure their safety. They dove deep into the Euphrates River and swam to safety. Later, these two fish were immortalized in the heavens as the zodiac sign Pisces. After this, the Syrians stopped eating and catching fish, fearing potentially catching and killing the Gods. Even today, beautiful Greek works of art depict either Eros or Aphrodite riding on a fish.

Here is a lovely Roman poem about the tale of Pisces!

Ovid, Fasti 2. 458 ff (trans.Boyle) (Roman poetry C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) – “Pisces, heaven’s horses. They say that you and your brother, for your stars gleam together, ferried two gods on your backs. Once Dione, in flight from terrible Typhon, reached the Euphrates with tiny Cupidos in tow and sat by the hem of Palestine’s stream. Poplars and reeds dominated the tops of the banks; willows, too, offered hope of concealment. While she hid, the wood roared with the wind. She pales with fear and believes a hostile band is approaching. As she clutched her son to her breast, she cried: ‘To the rescue, Nymphae, and bring help to two divinities.’ No delay; she leaped. Twin fish went underneath them, for which, you see, the present stars are named. Hence timid Syrians think it wrong to serve up this species; they defile no mouths with fish.’”

Symmetry meaning in maths

Something is symmetrical when it has two matching halves. You can check for symmetry in shape by drawing a mirror line down the middle and seeing if both halves are identical.

In other words, symmetry exists when something with matching parts faces each other or around an axis.

But what makes a shape symmetrical? Put, symmetrical (or symmetric) shapes have one side that is the same as the other. Symmetrical shapes look the same after being reflected, rotated, or translated.

Lines of symmetry meaning

A line of symmetry splits a shape in half, creating two identical shapes. When drawing this line, you need to find the exact middle of a shape or figure.

Above are two examples of symmetrical shapes and their lines of symmetry. It’s also important to note that some shapes can have multiple lines of symmetry. Take a square, for example – you can draw four lines of symmetry on a square—one horizontally across the middle, one vertically down the middle, and two going diagonally each way.

A line of symmetry can also be called a ‘mirror line’ as a mirror can be placed along it, and the reflection would show the entire shape. Small mirrors can be handy in the classroom to help children understand the meaning of symmetry and how it works.

Different types of symmetry: meaning

Now that we’ve established reflectional (or line) symmetry let’s look at the other main ways a shape or pattern can be deemed symmetrical. While students may not learn about these until high school, it’s worth knowing the basics of these other forms of symmetry in maths.

What are the four types of symmetry?

The four types of symmetry are rotational, translational, reflection, and glide reflection.

Rotational symmetry

They are also known as radial symmetry. A shape or pattern has rotational symmetry when it looks the same after being rotated less than one complete turn. We count rotational symmetry by the number of turns it takes for a shape to look the same. This is called the ‘order’ of rotational symmetry. For example, a rectangle has an order of 2, and a five-point star has an order of 5.

Translational symmetry

Translational symmetry in maths is slightly more complex and is only introduced in high school. For an object to have translational symmetry, it needs to have been translated or cloned and moved in a specific direction and at a certain distance away. There must be more than one of a particular pattern or object for it to have translational symmetry, which is why it’s often helpful to think of a repeated pattern as an example of translational symmetry.

If you had a border of small square shapes across the top of a wall in your home, you’d want these to be repeated at the same distance. This would be an example of translational symmetry.

Glide reflection symmetry

Glide reflection symmetry is best described as a hybrid between reflection and translational symmetry. It involves both processes, but in a specific order; review over a line and translation along the line. A shape must first be reflected and then translated in any direction for glide reflection to have taken place.

When was the camera invented? — Before the camera

Before any camera technology was invented, we created images in many different ways. Our ancestors left behind paintings on the walls of caves. They painted pictures of themselves, animals, plants, and more. Other ancient civilizations painted or drew on tablets or papyrus. They created sculptures by carving them into rock or wood. These art forms remain popular even today, though we use paper, canvas, or even digital devices like tablets for drawing and painting. However, the first camera-like device was invented shortly before Anno Domini began. It was called the camera obscura.

When was the camera obscura invented?

The camera obscura dates back to the 5^th century BC. It was made up of darkened rooms or enclosed boxes with a tiny opening on one wall or side. When light passed through this small hole, it projected a blurry image of the outside world onto a screen or wall. ‘Camera obscura’ translates to ‘dark chamber’. Ancient philosophers like Aristotle noted this process.

But when was the camera obscura invented, exactly? Unfortunately, there are no records of its invention. The first complete account of how it worked comes from the 11^th century, many centuries after its use was first noted.

The camera obscura was used throughout the Middles Ages and even the Renaissance. Inventors embellished the invention by adding biconvex lenses in the second half of the 16^th century. These lenses allowed the images projected by the camera obscura to be brightened. Once particular use of the camera obscura was its ability to enable the viewer to see the solar eclipses without hurting their eyes. This proved helpful for astronomers. The camera obscura was also used by artists as an aid for drawing and painting. The projected image could be traced, which helped artists with their graphical perspective in the artwork of landscapes or similar.

Developments of the camera obscura technology meant that the camera obscura became closer and closer to what we think of as a ‘camera’ today.

But when was the first proper camera invented? Well, many inventors managed to ‘capture’ images in one way or another. For example, Johann Heinrich Schulze captured an image of cut-out letters on a bottle of a light-sensitive slurry in 1717. He had discovered that silver salts darkened when exposed to light. However, this was not durable.

Thomas Wedgwood, the son of famous potter and entrepreneur Josiah Wedgwood, conducted many early photography experiments. He is the first to have considered creating permanent photographs; however, his attempts were largely unsuccessful. He created ‘photograms,’ but these were not light-fast (resistant to light).

When was the camera invented? — The first camera

In 1826, Joseph Nicéphore Niépce was the first to capture an image with a camera permanently.

He used a camera obscura and a pewter plate. This pewter plate was coated with a light-sensitive material called Bitumen of Judea to capture and ‘fix’ the image. However, this process took at least eight hours of exposure, and the picture he created was unclear or refined.

Niépce’s associate, Louis Daguerre, was inspired by his findings. The daguerreotype only needed minutes of camera exposure. This was a drastic improvement over Niépce’s method. Daguerre’s invention also produced much clearer and more detailed results. The details of this method were announced to the world in 1839. This is the year typically accepted as the birth year of practical photography.

Photography Facts

What was the first photograph of?

The first photograph taken by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce was of the view from a window of his family’s home. This view was of the courtyard. The image is titled ‘View from the Window at Le Gras.’

What was the first photograph taken in color?

In 1861, James Clerk Maxwell produced the first color photograph. He captured an image of some tartan ribbon. His technique involved photographing the ribbon through red, yellow, and blue filters, then combining those separate images.

In 1907, the French Lumière brothers began to market their ‘Autochrome’ invention. They could produce vivid colors in their images using dyed potato starch. This technique remained the most popular color film technique until Kodachrome film came along in 1935.

When was the camera invented? — Other advancements in camera technology

In the 1830s, the British inventor William Henry Fox Talbot showed off his photographic process called the ‘Calotype.’ This method used high-quality photosensitive paper instead of metal sheets like the daguerreotype. When exposed to light, the paper produced a hidden image that could be developed and preserved when rinsed with hyposulphite. The results were a bit fuzzier than daguerreotypes, but they were much easier to reproduce. In addition, with the Calotype, infinite copies could be made with just one negative.

However, Daguerreotypes and Calotypes became obsolete in 1851.

Frederick Scott Archer had come up with a brand new photographic method that combined considerably improved image quality with negatives that could be easily copied. Archer had discovered that a chemical called collodion, usually used in the medical field, could create ‘wet plates’ made of glass. These wet plates had an exposure time of mere seconds. This process was cheap and produced great images. However, setting up the plates was more complex and meant that photographers needed to transport portable darkroom tents or wagons around with them if they wanted to take pictures outside of their homes or studio. Despite this drawback, the wet-collodion process was incredibly successful.

However, early to mid-19^th-century photography was limited because photographers needed a good understanding of chemistry to take photographs. This changed when Robert L. Maddox invented his ‘dry plates.’ Preserved silver salts were encased in gelatin. These dry plates retained light-sensitivity for a good while, which meant that they could be pre-packaged and, therefore, mass-produced and sold to excited customers. No more prepping wet plates and lugging around portable dark rooms! Also, because dry plates allowed for much quicker exposures, they could capture moving objects better than ever.

However, it wouldn’t until around 1885 that photography became accessible to hobbyists. The invention that allowed this was camera film. George Eastman invented film on rolls and began producing it to be bought by anyone who could afford the camera. The film was much lighter and easier to transport than any previous option. In addition, as it was stored on a roll, multiple photos could be taken quickly. This helped sell the first Kodak camera, another of Eastman’s inventions. However, customers could not take out the film and take it to be developed.

At first, the camera could take 100 pictures and then need to be sent back to the manufacturer to develop the images. The camera would then be reset and ready to take 100 photographs. These cameras were convenient and easy to use, but the photos were low-quality. Celluloid was invented not long after this camera came out, and that changed the game entirely. Film quality improved significantly, and celluloid film remained all the rage until digital cameras broke onto the scene.

When were digital cameras invented?

The first digital camera was invented in 1975. Its creator was Steve Sasson, an engineer at Kodak. This camera took 0.01-megapixel images. For comparison, many modern mobile phones have a camera that takes pictures of 12 megapixels or more!

The first digital camera could only take black-and-white photos. Time was an issue too. It took 23 seconds to take a single image. However, in 1991, Nikon released the Nikon F3; this was the first digital camera that could be bought easily by the public. However, it was a bit ahead of its time and was not immediately popular. By 1995, sales of consumer digital cameras began to increase drastically. In 1997, the first image taken by a camera phone was sent to over 2000 people. Soon after, many mobile phone manufacturers would design their camera phones. Of course, nowadays, almost every mobile phone has at least one camera. Some have two or three, even!

Phonetic Spelling

What is phonetic spelling, and how can you teach pupils to spell phonetic words? Learn all about phonetic spelling, how to spell phonetic words and how it can be very beneficial for children when learning to spell long and tricky words!

What is Phonetic Spelling?

Phonetic spelling is a clever way to help young kids spell longer and more complex words. The technique involves sounds of letters and uses each letter to represent a single spoken sound to help children spell them.

Some words are spelled exactly how they’re sounded out. For example, the letter ‘T’ uses one sound. So when you say the word tree, you can hear the letter ‘T’ sound, creating an unmistakable sound.

However, things get a little tricky when the ‘T’ is paired with other letters, such as ‘th’ words, as it loses the simple sound and creates a new sound. The new sound ‘th’ words create doesn’t create a singular sound, and in certain words such as thin and this, the single letter of ‘T’ doesn’t correlate to one sound, making it a little trickier to spell.

Phonemes vs. graphemes               

A phoneme is simply the smallest unit of sound within a word. On the other hand, a grapheme is any given letter or combination of letters representing a phoneme. Phonemes and graphemes play a crucial role in phonetic spelling, as they are all about the sound of words.

Some languages follow a system known as phonemic orthography. This is where the graphemes, i.e., the written symbols, correspond precisely to the language’s phonemes, i.e., the spoken sounds. English, as a language, is not overly phonetically consistent. The most phonetically consistent languages across the board are Russian, Korean, and Arabic. In these languages, the pronunciation between written and spoken speech is not much changed. This type of language is often seen as a more straightforward way of spelling and pronunciation.

Who Uses Phonetic Spelling and Why is it Useful?

Phonetic spelling can be helpful for a wide range of people, including the kids in your class! When kids are just starting with spelling, everything can seem quite overwhelming, and the idea that there are some spelling rules but many exceptions to them can seem like too much to take on. This is where phonetic spelling comes in, as it simplifies everything by getting kids to match each sound in a word with a letter they think makes the same sound. This will not always result in kids spelling words correctly, but it will get them on the right track. For instance, a child may initially spell a word like ‘tell’ as ‘tel’, based on their method of matching the sounds with letters that represent them. This phase in children’s education will help them learn how to read and spell correctly.

The technique is also good if children have a tricky name to spell, as it allows them to break it down. For example, if we’re presented with the name Raul, you would sound it like Rah-OOL, with a heavy pronunciation of the ‘ool’ sound, so they understand how it’s pronounced. Or the name, Sophia, would be pronounced so-FEE-uh. This is a great way to make sure children pronounce names correctly; you could even try this for fun with your child’s name as a warm-up exercise.

Switching things up

Several people have tried to change how we spell using the English language over time. One of the people who had notable success in this was Noah Webster, whose name you may recognize from a particular famous dictionary. Webster suggested that a small number of new standardized spellings be implemented for certain words. His suggestions are still in use in American and British English today. For example, Webster suggested that the letter ‘c’ be changed to ‘s’ in some words like offense and defense. He also proposed that the letter ‘k’ be taken off words like musick. Not all of Webster’s suggested changes were implemented, but those shaped entirely how we spell today!

What are Phonetic Words?

Phonetic describes the way that spoken words sound. To sound out an unfamiliar word, you break it into its phonetic parts, saying each in the order in which it appears.

Spelling Phonetic Words: consonants and vowels

Here is a list of consonants and vowels, their phonetic sounds, and examples. You could use this table when helping children learn how to spell these different words by pronouncing the sounds slowly and clearly.

Examples of phonetic words with different consonant sounds:

Sound/letter:	Example:
b	but, bad.
ch	cheese, cheek or nature – spelt with a t, but makes the same sound.
d	do, dog.
f	fur, food, enough- ‘gh’ sounds like ‘f.’
g	go, bug.
h	hop, ahead.
l	leg, letter.
m	man, mom.
n	no, tin – ‘n’ sound is at the end.
ng	ring, sing.
p	pen, tip – ‘p’ sound is at the end.
r	run, far – ‘r’ sound is heard at the end when pronounced.
s/ss	see, pass.
sh	she, emotion – spelt differently but when pronounced the ‘sh’ sound is heard.
t	twig, bet – heard at the end when pronounced.
th	the, teeth.
v	visit, have.
w	We
wh	whisper, what

Examples of phonetic words with different vowel sounds:

Sound/letter:	Example:
a	cat, hat.
air	square – spelt differently, but when pronounced, sounds like ‘air’.
ar	party, start.
ay	stay, sway.
ai	pain, chain.
er	letter, burger
ee	fleece, beep.
i	kit, lit.
o	lot, toast.
oe	shoe, poem.
oo	food, boot.
ou	out, count.
ow	mouth – even though it’s spelt differently, you can still hear the ‘ow’ sound.
u	gum, bun.

As shown above, words sometimes sound out different letters to how they’re spelled; this is when things get tricky. If a child struggles with a particular set of words, try noting them down and going over them more than others until they master them.

Elements of music include timbre, texture, rhythm, melody, beat, harmony, structure, tempo, pitch, and dynamics.

What are the elements of music?

The elements of music are essentially the different things you can hear when listening to music. They are what differentiates a piece of music from other sounds.

If you perform a piece of music, even if you are singing and dancing to your favorite song, then – whether you know it or not – you are showing that you have a sense of what the elements of music are.

Recognizing your existing sense of what the elements of music are can help you to take your understanding of music and music theory further. You will repeat the rhythm and melody if you sing a few lines of one of your favorite songs.

To replicate the rhythm, you show that you have a sense of the pulse and the different durations of the notes you are singing. By singing the melody, you establish how the different pitches relate to one another (called intervals).

If you were then to sing along to a recording of the song, you would automatically adjust your pitch and tempo so that they matched what you were listening to – you are more musical than you know!

By learning to recognize and describe the different elements of what you hear, you will be able to talk and write about music more accurately – not to mention enjoy and appreciate new things about how a piece is constructed. This easy-to-download poster will help you explain the elements of music to children and jazz up your display walls too!

Ten elements of music to teach children

1. Rhythm

Combinations of long and short sounds convey movement. When learning to understand rhythm, you should try to understand it in terms of regularity. Later on, you can learn how this regularity is played with and contradicted in music. Music is measured in beats, and rhythms are different beats. This is the steady pulse that runs throughout a piece of music.

Rhythm alone is musical. Think of the intro to the song ‘Car Wash’ by Rose Royce – the clapping is instrumented only with hands, but it forms the backbone of the rest of the piece. Listen as the different textures of the song come in one by one and are layered over the clapped rhythm.

More – Take your understanding of rhythm further by learning more about its interdependent elements: meter, pulse, and duration (of notes).

2. Beat

The underlying steady beat of the music. This is what we may tap our foot to or clap along with! If you can do this without necessarily being able to describe the rhythm in terms of beats, you are aware of something regular pulsing through the music. You could say that the pulse is rhythm in its simplest form.

3. Duration

The length of the beats makes up the music. In the main melody – the tune in a pop song that you would sing along to – this would be the different lengths of the notes you are singing. In contrast to the pulse of the rhythm, which is regular, each note of the melody would last for different portions of the pulse.

Try clapping a pulse as you sing a melody – try Frère Jacques – and notice how the words aren’t necessarily as long as the beats of the pulse. They can be longer (lasting for one or more claps) or shorter (multiple notes or words between claps).

4. Pitch

Pitch is how high or low a sound is – every sound has a pitch, even if it isn’t musical. In written music, the notes on the staff show what pitch to play, when, and for how long.

5. Tempo

Tempo is an element of music that dictates and describes the speed at which music is performed. This effects the mood of a piece of music. Often, sad music is slower than happy music, but this isn’t a strict rule. Complex moods are created in music by using tempo in both expected and unexpected ways and changing the tempo during a piece.

Tempo can be described precisely using metronome indications and BPM (beats per minute). But it can also be defined more broadly using performance directions. Performance directions usually appear at the beginning of a piece of written music and describe the speed or tempo at which the piece should be played. These tempo markings won’t be as precise as a metronome indication – instead, they will state that the piece should be played ‘quickly’, ‘slowly’, ‘with fire’, or in any way the composer thought was suitable!

Performance directions for tempo are primarily written in Italian, but you can also find them in French, German or English. Standard Italian terms for tempo include:

• lento – very slow;
• largo – very slow and ‘broad’;
• adagio – slow;
• andante – at walking speed;
• moderato – at moderate speed;
• allegro – fast and lively;
• vivace – lively.

As you can see, these descriptions are open to interpretation, and that is part of the fun of playing music and interesting a piece for yourself.

Does tempo always stay the same in music?

No. In music, the tempo is as changeable as we are. It alters the mood of a piece and changes with the emotion of the music. A change of tempo can occur in the middle of a piece. In classical music, works with several movements will each be in a different tempo. For example, Mozart’s famous ‘Turkish March’ (Piano Sonata No. 11 in A major, K. 331) is made up of these three movements:

1. Andante grazioso (slow and graceful);
2. Menuetto (at the tempo of a minuet);
3. Alla turca – Allegretto (Turkish style – moderately fast).

Words like ritardando and rallentando, which appear in the middle of a piece, tell musicians to slow down the tempo in an expressive way to convey emotion. The instruction of a tempo primo would mean the players resume the original tempo after the slowed-down passage.

6. Timbre

Timbre is the particular tone that distinguishes a sound or combinations of sounds. Every sound – whether musical or not – has a timbre. When we talk about timbre, we can describe it in terms of color and shape. A sound could be warm, silvery, round, or sharp – how would you describe different sounds?

When you sing your favorite song, think about how your voice sounds different from the singer in the recording. Close your eyes and listen to the sound of various instruments – do you get different colors, feelings, or images from the sounds of these instruments? How do these compare? Can you notice differences between the timbre of two of the same instrument?

7. Texture

The texture of music indicates the layers of sound in work and their relationship. A full orchestra might sound swollen and heavy, while a solo ukulele could sound light.

8. Melody

A sequence of notes and rhythms – these complement but are not identical to the notes and beats of the accompanying sounds. They work together to make a layered sound.

The melody is what we usually sing along to (and the pulse is what we tap our feet to). In your favorite song, the voice doesn’t necessarily sing the same rhythm and notes as the backing music, but it sounds like it belongs with them. They work together to create texture.

9. Structure

As a novel is structured into paragraphs and chapters, and a poem is formed of lines and stanzas, this refers to the different sections of a piece and their order.

In most music, there is a formal structure – think of how pop songs have different verses and a repeated chorus which they return to in between. The various verses explore the theme of the song and develop it.

The chorus usually returns for one final rendition, which is altered or extended in some way. It is the same in other musical forms – all have a structured way of exploring their melodic or lyrical themes.

10. Harmony

This is the sounding of two or more notes at the same time. A piece of music harmonizes with one another to produce a (typically) pleasant sound. How can you tell when you have played or sung the wrong note? It was probably because it did not harmonize as you expected!

Some 20th and 21st-century classical compositions can be described as sounding ‘jarring’ or ‘scary’ – often because it deliberately avoids pleasant-sounding harmony.

11. Dynamics

Dynamics are one of the core elements of musical expression. Learning about them will help children to listen critically and get a more nuanced sense of meaning from the music they study.

Dynamics are how we describe how solid or soft a sound is. Dynamics don’t necessarily represent volume – all live music needs to be loud enough to be heard – but about how hard or gentle the notes sound.

In written music, dynamics are indicated with words and symbols, which you can see in the chart below:

Number Line

A number line is a visual representation of numbers along a horizontal line. Learn more about number lines, their usefulness, and how to teach with them.

What is a Number Line?

In math, a number line is a horizontal straight line with numbers placed at equal distances from each other along that line. Some will have a specified starting and ending point. These are called closed number lines. Number lines can also be blank or empty.

A vertical number line is called a number ladder.

Number lines are typically introduced in kindergarten and are used frequently throughout elementary and middle school to help build skills like counting, adding, and subtracting numbers.

Why is a Number Line useful for my lessons?

A number line is helpful because it acts as a visual math aid.

It can support teachers and parents as they teach children how to count and write numbers. It’s also a tool that can help build understanding behind adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing numbers. And it’s a handy way to show how fractions make up a whole!

In addition, blank or empty number lines can be used alongside word problems to aid students as they take “jumps” to work towards the solutions.

Here are a few fundamental rules to keep in mind when using number lines:

• Numbers increase when moving left to right and decrease when moving right to left. They are always in sequential order.

• Numbers are spaced evenly on a line to show that the value between the intervals is the same.

• Positive and negative numbers, fractions, and decimals can be included.

• To add, move to the left.

• To subtract, move to the right.

• To multiply, skip-count in groups to the left.

• And to divide, skip-count in groups to the right.

Number lines are also obvious to read. While it’s not a ruler, and the space between numbers isn’t set, the values included help children visualize and compare the relationships between the numbers shown on the line. This, in turn, helps develop number sense.

Overall, they are versatile math tools that can be used in the classroom and at home.

A tendon is a fibrous connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone. Tendons are strong and flexible, sometimes compared to rope. Tendons may also attach muscles to other parts of the body, like the eyeball. A tendon works to move the bone or body part.

What connects muscle to the bone?

Tendons or sinew connect muscle to bone. In some parts of the body, muscle is directly attached to the bone. If there isn’t enough room on the bone or the bone and muscle are too far away, you will find tendons connecting them. Tendons are a kind of dense fibrous connective tissue. One end is connected to a muscle, and the other attaches to the periosteum, a type of membrane covering your bones. Tendons can let your bones move around as your muscles tighten and relax, keeping everything stable and transferring muscle movement to the bone. They aren’t very stretchy, but they are resistant to tearing.

Exercise is essential for maintaining the health of your tendons. Tendons can withstand considerable tension, but their ability to do this can weaken over time. They can, however, still become overstrained. Certain health conditions, such as arthritis, can also damage your tendons. One of the reasons that tendon injury is concerning is that they take a long while to heal. This is because there aren’t many blood vessels in tendons.

What are ligaments?

Ligaments are another kind of fibrous connective tissue, but instead of being what connects muscle to bone, they connect bone to other bones. They also help to maintain the position of your organs within the body. Some ligaments even work to limit or prevent specific movements, such as movement that could cause you to dislocate a joint.

Ligaments are viscoelastic, which means that they gradually strain under tension. When this tension is removed, they return to their original shape. However, suppose dislocated joints are not set within a certain period. In that case, the ligaments can be stretched out of shape permanently, meaning that the joint in question will be more likely to dislocate again. This means that the dislocation of a joint must be resolved as quickly as possible. Stretching exercises such as those practiced by athletes and dancers can help lengthen ligaments and make joints more flexible.

Ligaments generally cannot be regenerated naturally. There is one exception to this: there are periodontal ligament stem cells that help to regenerate the periodontist ligament. This is a group of fibers that work to attach the teeth to the surrounding bone.

Fun fact: the study of ligaments is known as desmology!

What connects muscles to other muscles?

That would be fasciae! A fascia is a band or sheet of connective tissue, like tendons and ligaments. It can be found beneath the skin and does multiple jobs depending on the type of fascia. Some fasciae enclose muscles, and some other sections stabilize muscles or separate them from other organs inside the human body. The fascia is differentiated by layer or function, e.g., visceral or superficial fascia.

What is a Translucent Material?

A translucent material is an object you cannot see because only some light can pass through. In addition, the light that passes through is scattered.

Translucent means allowing light to pass through but not showing clear and distinct images on the other side. So, if there is something on the other side of the object, you will be able to see it, but you may not be able to tell what it is as it may be distorted. So you’ll see fuzzy, unclear images through a translucent object.

What are some examples of translucent materials?

There are many day-to-day objects we encounter that are translucent! Just look at your surroundings and see if you can find one. Here are some examples to start off with:

• frosted glass shower door
• tinted car windows
• sunglasses
• A single piece of tissue paper
• vegetable oil

What is the difference between Transparent and Translucent Materials?

The difference between these two terms can be confusing at first. Here are some essential differences that will help you to differentiate between them.

• Transparent materials allow all light to pass through, but translucent materials allow some light to pass through.
• Transparent materials allow light to pass through directly, but translucent materials cause light to scatter as it passes through
• Transparent objects allow details on the other side to be visible; for example, you can see what is on the other side of a window. However, with translucent materials, you cannot see clearly or at all what is on the other side. It may be distorted or unclear.

Transparent, Translucent, and Opaque Objects:

Items or objects are classified by the way they interact with light. Materials that permit all light to pass through are called transparent. Materials that allow some light to pass through are called translucent; items that don’t allow any light are called opaque. Examples of opaque materials are wood, stone, and metal.

What is Shintoism?

Shintoism is a belief system that originated in Japan and is followed by 104 million people worldwide. While Shinto is a distinct religion, Japanese people don’t tend to classify it as so; it is more a way of life than it is about explaining the world. Instead, its followers often regard it as Japan’s indigenous religion and as a nature religion. The word Shinto comes from the written Chinese kanji of “Shen”, meaning “divine spirit”, and “Tao”, meaning “way”, to form the meaning of “Way of the Spirits”.

Kami

Shinto’s central belief is worshiping kami, which are spirits that inhabit the natural world. From landscapes and forces of nature to people and animals (both living and dead), all objects are believed to have kami.

Unlike the western concept of gods, Kami is not omnipotent nor perfect. They, like humans, sometimes make mistakes and misbehave. The goal is for humanity to strive towards exemplifying qualities of good kami.

Shinto history

Shinto is the oldest surviving and widely practiced Japanese religion, but unlike many religions, Shinto doesn’t have a straightforward origin story. Instead, it appears to have evolved from different cultural practices from ancient Japan, with limited historical records. Early adoptions of Shinto beliefs are believed to have emerged in the period of the Yayoi culture (c. 300 BCE – 300 CE), and the earliest written record that describes Shinto is the “Kojiki” (“Record of Ancient Matters”), dating 712 CE.

Like many prehistoric societies, Ancient Japanese people held animistic beliefs (that objects, places, and creatures possess a spirit), which withstood the faith in kami.

Shinto and Buddhism

Shinto considered a syncretic religion (a fusion of different beliefs and practices), differs from Buddhism, which has a more evident doctrine and ideas (although there are many conflicting but coexisting forks of it, such as Zen and Pureland). However, both religions have become intertwined in Japan after centuries of coexistence.

Shinto is more ambiguous than Buddhism and has no religious texts or set doctrine. Moreover, whereas Buddhism has a clear origin, Shinto predates any historical records, and it is unknown who or where it originated from.

Buddhism and Shinto also have different beliefs about the afterlife. Shinto believes that after death, a person’s kami passes on to another world and watches over their descendants. This is primarily why ancestral worship still plays an essential part in modern-day Japan.

Rituals and beliefs

The overriding belief in Shinto is to promote harmony and purity in all aspects of life. Humans are considered fundamentally sound, and evil spirits cause evil. Therefore, Shinto’s purpose is to pray and offer to the kami to keep away evil spirits.

Shinto followers can worship in shared public shrines; however, many choose to do so in their own homes and set up their own shrines. These shrines are called “kami-dana” and are a shelf on which people place offerings to the kami.

As mentioned earlier, in Ancient Japan, Shinto and Buddhism became closely intertwined and coexist to this day. Because of this, some Buddhist figures (the botatsu or “enlightened beings”) have become prominent kami with believers of Shinto.

Three of these figures include Amida (ruler of the Pure Land, i.e. heaven), Kannon (protector of children, women in childbirth, and dead souls), and Jizo (protector of people suffering pain and the souls of dead children). Another famous figure worshipped in both faiths is Hachiman, a god of archery and war.

Core values of Shinto

1. Purity. The idea of purity in Shinto is nearest to the western notion of evil and pollution, called “Kegare” in Japanese. This does not just refer to physical uncleanliness, but energy too, and these are addressed through purification rituals.
2. Makoto (sincerity). Makoto refers to the honesty of the heart. If goodness and gravity are not in your heart, all acts are pointless.
3. Harmony with nature. Since kami can possess anything, it is nature itself. As you can find kami everywhere, keeping places clean and aware of the environment is essential.
4. Matsuri (festivals). Matsuri, and Shinto festivals, bind a community together and bring good fortune to it.
5. Focus on here, now. Shinto strictly focuses on the present and celebrates what we know and have.

Amaterasu

Amaterasu, also known as Amaterasu Ōmikami, which translates to “Great Divinity (that which) illuminates Heaven”, is the celestial sun goddess. She is perhaps the most important Shinto deity.

She was born from the left eye of her father, Izanagi, who made her ruler of “Takamagahara”, the “High Celestial Plain”, where all kami live. Followers of the Shinto faith have worshipped Amaterasu for thousands of years, and she is credited with inventing the cultivation of rice and wheat, silkworms, and weaving with a loom.

Amaterasu’s primary shrine of worship is the Grand Shrine of Ise, Japan’s most prominent Shinto shrine. She is manifested in a mirror as one of the three Imperial Treasures of Japan.

Shinto places of worship

Shinto shrines, known as “jinja”, are places of worship and the dwellings of the kami. Sacred objects of worship that represent the kami are kept in the innermost chambers of the jinjas and cannot be viewed by anyone.

Newborn babies are brought to a shrine a few weeks after birth, and couples hold their wedding ceremonies at shrines.

There are around 80,000 shrines dotted all over Japan! Each shrine has an annual festival where people gather to pay their respects to the kami and celebrate with food, music, dancing, and sake.

Every village, town, or district in Japan will have its own Shinto shrine dedicated to the local kami.

Not all shrines are buildings – they can also be rocks, trees, and mountains if they are considered unique to kami.

A large shrine can contain several smaller sub-shrines. Shinto shrines can cover several thousand acres or a few square feet. They are often located in the landscape in a way as to emphasize their connection to the natural world.

Japanese people visit shrines as and when they want to, and will often see the local shrine when they want the local kami to bless them with good fortunes, such as good exam results.

Festivals

Shinto festivals are called “matsuri” (“to entertain” or “to serve”) and center on a particular kami who are treated as guests of honor at the ceremony.

The festivals tend to be very active events, with processions, dramatic performances, dancing, sumo wrestling, and feasts. In addition, the parades often feature a “mikoshi” (a “divine palanquin”) which is used to carry a kami or an image of a kami. The mikoshi is transported around the local community to purify it and bless its future well-being.

Along with the annual local matsuri festival, two other critical yearly festivals include the three-day Shogatsu Matsuri, or Japanese New Year festival, and the Obon Buddhist celebration of the dead returning to the ancestral home (which includes many Shinto rituals).

Because Shinto originates in the agricultural prehistory of Japan, many of its festivals surround the farming seasons.

Shogatsu Matsuri – Japanese New Year

Japanese New Year is the most important holiday in Japan, and it is celebrated for three days, from January the 1st to January the 3rd. During this period, most businesses close, and families spend the holiday together.

Each year marks a fresh start, and you are supposed to complete all duties before the end of the year. “Bonenkai” parties (“year forgetting” parties) are thrown and symbolize leaving the old year’s worries and troubles behind.

A selection of dishes is prepared during the New Year celebrations called “osechi-ryōri”, typically shortened to osechi. Many of these dishes are sweet, sour, or dried. Ozoni is another popular dish served, which is a soup that includes mochi rice cake and other ingredients that vary depending on which region of Japan you’re in. Finally, eating “toshikoshi soba” (buckwheat noodles) is expected on New Year’s Eve.

Many Japanese people visit a shrine or temple during this period, and Japan’s most famous shrines, such as Tokyo’s Meiji Shrine, attract several million people!

Shintoism facts

Shinto is a fascinating religion, so we’ve compiled a list of crucial Shintoism facts:

• There are millions of “gods” in Shintoism, and a Japanese phrase encapsulates this is “Yaoyorozu no kami”, meaning 8 million kami.
• Several of the oldest shrines in Japan include Izumo Taisha, Fushimi Inari, and Tsubaki Grand Shrine.
• When a kid is born in Japan, their name is added to a list at their local shrine, making them a “family child”. So when they come to pass at the end of their life, they will become a family spirit.
• Worship consists of hand-clapping, silent prayer, and offerings made at the shrine
• The most important Jinja (shrine) in Japan is at Ise. This shrine is devoted to the sun goddess Amaterasu.

Glossary of Shinto shrine terms

• Torii – These gates mark a shrine’s entrance (see picture below). They are mostly made of wood and painted orange and black, although they can come in various colors.

• Komainu – a pair of guardian dogs or lions that often sit on each side of a shrine’s entrance.
• Purification trough – fountains of which their water is used for purification (washing hands and mouth) before entering the shrine’s main hall.
• Main and offering hall – the main hall (honden) holds the shrine’s sacred object in its innermost chamber, while the offering hall (haiden) is where visitors pray and offer at.
• Stage – some shrines have locations for kagura dance or noh theatre performances.
• Ema – visitors write their wishes on wooden plates called ema (see picture below) and then leave them at the shrine. Most people wish for good health, passing exams, love, and wealth.

• Omikuji – fortune-telling paper slips are found at many shrines and temples. Visitors randomly draw them and receive either good or bad fortune depending on what’s written on their labels. Bad luck can be left behind by tying the omikuji around a tree’s branch.
• Shimenawa – straw ropes mark the boundary to something sacred and can be found on torii gates, around sacred trees and stones, etc.