Teaching Strategies, Tactics, and Methods

Close the door on boring close-reading activities. This teaching guide will give tips on how to train your students to be expert close readers who excite you with every essay.

Close reading analyzes the finer details in a text and develops a deeper understanding of its content and meaning. Children analyze a range of texts in their studies from Early Years to Higher Education and will carry these definitive skills into their future lives.

Like an ant with a magnifying glass, close reading gets into the finer details of a text to find precious morsels of meaning.

How can children learn from close reading?

Have you ever been lost in a book you were supposed to analyze because the story was so good? Learning to read and analyze text is not easy, but there are simple and effective ways to turn your students into top-notch little critical readers.

Close reading prose, poetry, or any form of text typically requires multiple reads. Students should do an initial read to become familiar with the topic of the text and formulate initial questions. Then, students should consider the details on the second read, analyze the text, and make descriptive notes.

Imagine you’re back in the classroom, your teacher has dragged a TV from the 70s into the room, and everyone cheers – it’s a relaxing lesson of watching TV. Watching a show in a study is always fun, but there’s typically a deeper purpose. The credits roll up, and your teacher asks you to analyze the endlessly perplexing prose of Romeo and Juliet.

Close reading is not a skill that comes naturally to everyone. Instead, you must consciously remember to analyze a text’s features and deeper meaning, whether it be prose, poetry, or even a Shakespeare play.

Close reading strategies for teachers

It is believed that there are five natural steps to adhere to when conducting a close reading, and they should guide students through the process of reading any text.

Step 1. Read the text and make notes of your ideas/ feelings

Step 2. Read the text again and analyze any themes, symbolism, metaphors

Step 3. Develop a descriptive idea about the meaning of the text

Step 4. Construct an argument backed up with examples from the text

Step 5. Develop an outline of the text based on your analysis

Close reading has different outcomes for each age group, but it’s never too early to start. Bring students’ reading to life by implementing engaging and informative strategies.

When starting, one of the main steps in close reading is learning to annotate correctly. So, get excited, kids; it’s time to reach for the highlighters. For each of the following steps, students should highlight the text in a different color. It allows students to engage with the text more thoroughly and notice patterns and structures they might have missed on the first read.

Analyze and Highlight –

1. Blue – Mark any unfamiliar words and look up the definition. Students can have fun with the highlighters in this step.
2. Yellow – Mark anything that attracts your attention, including strong use of language or an idea that intrigues you.
3. Pink – Highlight anything that is repeated that might have a deeper meaning. Does the color red constantly crop up? Is the writer always mentioning the weather?

Question Time –

1. Make a list of questions you have about the text. Try to make them open questions that can’t just be answered with a simple yes, or no.
2. First impressions – What is your opinion on the story, characters, and poetry?
3. Predict the text. What might happen and why?
4. Are there similarities? Does the text remind you of anything familiar?
5. Did you notice any key themes, patterns, or metaphors?

The wider benefits of close reading

Close reading deepens into literature, allowing readers to develop their reading comprehension more complexly. Children read for fun at preschool and into F – 2, encouraging language mastering through phonics. However, as children develop their literacy throughout years 3 – 6, they have reached the point where they can extract figurative language or find symbolism in the stories and words they read. At this point, children begin to focus on the bigger picture and can interpret a story’s moral or deeper meaning.

Close reading is an important strategy to encourage a child’s reading comprehension, not just in the books they read but in the world around them. If a child does not begin to understand the meaning of the words and the story within a book they are reading, they will read the words and miss that important connection.

Indefinite pronouns don’t refer to any particular person, thing or quantity. Instead, they refer to these things vaguely without saying what they are.

What are some examples of Indefinite Pronouns?

Examples of indefinite pronouns include:

All, another, any, anybody/anyone, anything, each, everybody/everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none, one, several, some, somebody/someone

The majority of indefinite pronouns are either singular or plural. However, some can be singular in one context and plural in another.

Examples of Indefinite Pronouns in sentences:

Here are some examples of the most commonly used indefinite pronouns in sentences. In addition, there are examples of singular, plural, and singular/plural indefinite pronouns.

Singular indefinite pronouns:

• Another -Can I have another piece of pie, please?
• Anybody / Anyone -Can anyone tell me the time?
• Anything -I’ll watch anything when I’m bored.
• Each -Each has his ideas.
• Either – I’ll have either one; I don’t mind.
• Enough – We have enough food for this week.
• Everybody / Everyone -We can start when everybody has arrived.
• Everything – They won everything they entered.
• Less – We have less than we started with.
• Little – We know little about this person.
• Much – Much has been discovered about them.
• Neither -I’ve told Bill and Ben, but neither will listen.
• Nobody / No-one -I rang the doorbell, but nobody was home.
• Nothing -They knew nothing about what had been planned.
• One – The games were exciting, but one was goalless.
• Other -One was clean, and the other was dirty.
• Somebody / Someone – Somebody forgot to close the door.
• Something – Something was moving in the garden.
• You -And now you know what happened yesterday.

Plural indefinite pronouns:

• Both -I think both cars are very nice.
• Few -Few people have seen him play before.
• Fewer -Fewer people are going shopping today.
• Many – Many look confused by his comments.
• Others -I’m certain others understand what is happening.
• Several – Several looked disappointed when it started.
• They – They seem to be having a good time.

Singular / Plural indefinite pronouns:

• All – All is forgiven. – All are waiting for the show to start
• Any – Is any left? – Are there any waiting?
• More -More are waiting. There is more over here.
• Most – Most is lost. Most have seen it.
• None – They plugged in the hose, but none came out. We told the players it was tonight, but none were here yet.
• Some -There are some. Some have started.
• Such -He looked young and felt that he was treated as such.

Everyone knows George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, and Barack Obama, but do you remember who the 2nd president of the United States was? Today we’ll get an answer to the question of who John Adams is and how his presidency changed the United States of America!

Who is John Adams?

John Adams (1735-1826) was the first vice president of the United States of America and, after the first election held, the second president. After barely beating out Thomas Jefferson, he served one term in office and tried to make lasting changes within the government through his highly opinionated and just ideals.

John Adams: America’s First Vice President

Beyond simply being the second president of the United States, John Adams had a very similar start to George Washington and many of his cabinet members. In addition, he was a Founding Father who aided the other colonies during the Revolutionary War.

Though much of Adams’ life was spent as a politician, be it as a statesman, an attorney, or his presidency, where John Adams shined in his political philosophy. His most famous line of philosophy still holds light within our many levels of government and even society today: “People and nations are forged in the fires of adversity.”

Adams’ was an interesting character in the Oval Office. But his various opinions made him a controversial figure during the early ages of the American government. How? Well, that’s what we’re here to learn!

John Adams, the Second President of the United States

It’s important to garner knowledge from every U.S. president, even those who may not have made as big of a splash as others. In his way, John Adams paved the way for many future presidents with his intelligence and passion.

Life in Brief: John Adams for Kids

Studying the presidents can be a tough task for kids of all ages. But teachers and students alike will learn something new today!

Famous Facts About John Adams

• Despite being the second president, John Adams was the first president to live full-time in the White House after it was established in Washington, D.C.
• Before the United States Constitution, John Adams wrote the Massachusetts Constitution, which is still implemented in the New England area today. The Massachusetts Constitution was a baseline for the United States Constitution that we know today!
• Being a Federalist, John Adams fought for a strong central government during his initial election period. Unfortunately, it put him at odds with Thomas Jefferson, a Democratic-Republican set on awarding states rights instead. This friction between the two later turned into a friendship built on letter writing that lasted until both deaths.

What was John Adams Best Known For?

John Adams was a brilliant political philosopher and patriot who fought hard to award America as many liberties as possible. Before he served his single term as president, though, John Adams was best known for his diplomatic actions and leadership as the vice president, where he made various strides to aid the poor and the cruelly treated against other Founding Fathers who had different ideas for the American government.

What did John Adams do to Change the World?

Along with the other Founding Fathers, John Adams changed the world by leading the fight for independence during the Revolutionary War. He acted as a diplomat for Holland and France, which is how he gained a lot of fame for his discussions of peace treaties and negotiations. However, his greatest accomplishment and contribution was his ability to inspire others to fight for independence and freedom!

John Adams: Early Years

Everyone has to start somewhere, and even if John Adams didn’t have any strong connection to cherry trees or state pride, his birthplace and early years hold foundational moments that built up his political ideology and opinionated personality!

When and Where was John Adams Born?

John Adams was born October 30, 1735 (or, in the Old Style, or Julian calendar, October 19, 1753) on a farm owned by his family in Braintree, Massachusetts. His father was both a farmer and a town councilman for Braintree.

Adams grew up as the eldest of three brothers, all of whom were born as their family’s Puritan sensibilities waned considerably from the original religion’s intensity.

John Adams’ Family

John Adams’ mother, Susanna Boylston, was the daughter of a medical family from a nearby town and was well-versed in medical knowledge and religious practices. Her husband and Adams’ father, John Adams’ Sr., held various roles throughout the city. He was a deacon, a lieutenant in the Massachusetts National Guard, a farmer and the owner of the family farm, a shoemaker, and a town councilman who was often in charge of building roads and schoolhouses.

Adams’ two younger brothers, Peter and Elihu, later also became soldiers in the Massachusetts National Guard and had their hand in the family business of farming. John Adams mostly spoke of his closeness to his father in his writing. His father’s true nature for John to learn as much as possible and work within the town of Braintree’s government inspired Adams’ path toward higher education. He also spoke fondly of his mother, stating she was “someone who wished to build character within her children.”

John Adams’ Childhood

In his childhood, John Adams was noted to love the outdoors. Like many children his age, he would spend his days running through the woods or fields, hunting, and fishing with his brothers. This childhood experience drew him towards the family business of farming, but John Adams Sr. was insistent that John Adams Jr. seek out an education. From this insistence came John’s first experiences in a classroom setting without wishing to skip out.

John Adam’s Education and Hobbies

The first school John Adams attended was a local dame school, a schoolhouse run by a single female teacher meant to bestow the basics of education on the town’s children. At this dame school, John Adams learned to read, write, and adjust to basic arithmetic (that’s old-school slang for math!).

Later on, John Adams attended a Latin school that offered a higher education and was meant to hopefully draw him down the path of becoming a deacon like his father. But instead, Adams took this preparatory school seriously and used his time there to study hard and attend Harvard College by the time he turned 15.

His time in Harvard killed any interest in joining the church and drew his interest toward law. After graduating, he taught at another Latin school for a few years and eventually saved up enough money to pay a famous Worcester lawyer to train him.

John Adams: The Founding Father

There are countless Founding Fathers to learn about, and John Adams happens to be one of them! Learn how he helped the other colonies win the Revolutionary War below!

The American Revolution and The Founding Fathers

In the 1700s, the Thirteen Colonies of America, Massachusetts, Delaware, Virginia, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, were under British rule. Though this was fine throughout most of the century, during the 1760s, the British government attempted to use the colonies to pay their debts from the French and Indian War they had recently been a part of. From these attempts came higher taxes for the American colonies.

These taxes offended and angered the colonists, who went to the streets and their government to attempt to lower the taxes. It resulted in the Boston Massacre, where British soldiers fired shots into a crowd of protesters and killed them. This event and, later on, the Boston Tea Party, where colonists threw British tea into the harbor waters in protest, sowed the seeds for the revolution to come.

The Founding Fathers came forth through this revolution. They united the colonies to fight against the British army that fell upon the nation in their attempts to regain order. These men helped establish America as an independent nation and were even the drafters and signers of the United States Declaration of Independence. These Founding Fathers were George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, Benjamin Franklin, and John Adams.

John Adams and the American Revolution

During the beginning of the war, the British Parliament revoked the Massachusetts Charter, and Great Britain stalled all trials from Massachusetts. This outrageous act, named The Intolerable Acts, spurred together all the colonies to hold the first Continental Congress meeting. During this meeting of the best minds in the colonies, John Adams was chosen as one of the five delegates to represent his home state of Massachusetts.

This decision would guide John Adams from the beginning of the war to the end, where his written and spoken words helped to inspire the people of the American colonies to fight against their common enemy, the British. He was one of the few delegates who understood that their independence could not be gained by word alone, though, and he advocated for war during the second meeting of the Continental Congress. Battles occurred from then on until the Declaration of Independence was drafted.

John Adams was one of the first to agree to a declaration to give the British to declare the united colonies as independent states, and also one of the few to turn to Thomas Jefferson to draft the official document, stating these as reasons for his being unfit to write: “Reason first: You are a Virginian and a Virginian ought to appear at the head of this business. Reason second: I am obnoxious, suspected, and unpopular. You are very much otherwise. Reason third: You can write ten times better than I can.”

The war raged on as the declaration was drafted. Finally, John Adams was appointed to the Board of War, where he fought for George Washington’s needs on the battlefront.

After a decisive battle late into the war, he returned home for a short time before being appointed as a commissioner of France, where he and other delegates would discuss peace negotiations and ask for aid in the war with the French. This call for aid perhaps helped the united colonies gain their independence, and once the battles were over, all of the Founding Fathers signed the Declaration of Independence!

John Adams: Vice President

Though John Adams was humiliated by his loss to George Washington for the role of president, he took up the vice president role due to his wish to be George Washington’s successor. As vice president, his roles included presiding over proceedings within Congress and acting basically as the president’s right-hand man– both of these tasks left John Adams feeling worthless, as he thought he had less say than when he was allowed to debate within Congress itself.

John Adams did not do much during his vice presidency and instead used it as a stepping stone to gain what he truly wanted: the presidency.

John Adams Presidency

John Adams’ presidency was rife with hardships and unpopular votes. Yet, despite this, he successfully steered the U.S. away from another war. How? Well, read on to find out!

When was John Adams Elected?

John Adams was elected in 1796 and sworn into office on March 4, 1797, as the first and only president to run under the Federalist Party. It was a close race between him and fellow Founding Father Thomas Jefferson, with whom he shared a strained friendship based on their differing political ideology.

With this win, John Adams finally gained the title he wanted, and with Thomas Jefferson as his vice president, John began his venture into the presidency with bright eyes and big ideas.

What did John Adams do during his Presidency?

John Adams retained George Washington’s Cabinet for his term, a move that Thomas Jefferson noted was because the men of the Cabinet were more loyal to Adams than Jefferson. Despite this, John Adams was an independent politician who did not turn to the Cabinet often for decision-making. This annoyed Alexander Hamilton, who was decisively Washington’s actual right-hand man. The letter detailing policy suggestions from Hamilton was actively ignored by Adams, much to the other man’s dismay.

During the later half of Washington’s presidency and continuing through Adams’, the French were back at war with the British due to conflicts within the French Revolution. Adams and the other Federalists decided to keep America out of the war, much to the chagrin of the French, who had supported Jefferson during the election and now saw Adams as someone who would not send them aid.

Fearing retaliation against this lack of aid, John Adams attempted to build defenses for possible war and even sent delegates to read a speech of peace between the warring countries that was met with backlash. This failed peace mission was perhaps due to Adams’ aggression in the written speech, but when this came to light, the public grew more favorable towards John Adams and instead turned to want full-scale war against the French.

In an unpopular move, John Adams signed the Alien and Sedition Acts, which targeted immigrants and allowed the president to push for greater deportation and increased the requirement for citizenship. These laws were unpopular within the house, especially to the Republicans, who grew unified in their hate for the way these laws treated people.

All this tension with the French spurred the Quasi-War, an undeclared naval war between America and France. American ships would take on French ships to hopefully slow their superior army. However, America was not ready for another war so soon, as they were still rebuilding from the Revolutionary War and were still a new nation. Despite this, John Adam’s aid in preparing naval defense during the shadows of war that had threatened American waters earned him the title of “Father of the American Navy.” Various small battles and rebellions took place during this time, and the Cabinet began to feel the tension within its walls.

John Adams began to seek peace around the time the French Revolution ended, and George Washington passed. However, his frustrations with the Hamilton loyalists who wished to keep the provisional army that Alexander Hamilton commanded began to fray the Federalists’ bonds. His ways of avoiding war eventually paid off when Napoleon asked for friendly relations after taking over the French government. Still, all of his decisions split Adams’ party.

The White House’s construction was completed close to the end of John Adams’ presidency. He moved in and became the first president to stay within the capital as a resident. However, his stay was short, and the Elections of 1800 ended with him firmly defeated by Thomas Jefferson, thanks to some help from Alexander Hamilton. As a result, John Adams only served one term as president.

Was John Adams a Federalist?

John Adams was indeed a Federalist! A Federalist is a member of the Federalist party within the United States that was against states having individual rights within their government. Instead, Federalists would fight for a strong, unified government to take over a nation’s responsibilities. John Adams was a strong advocate of unification, which may have made him an unpopular running man within the U.S. government.

John Adams’ Legacy

Despite being unpopular in his heyday, John Adams was a brilliant mind who helped to shape American ideals and build national pride and unity. Though many remembered him as arrogant and opinionated, those attributes allowed him to speak his mind freely. John Adama’s legacy cannot be forgotten, be it his political philosophy which many still study today, or even his son, who would become president and make his changes. That is the legacy John Adams left behind!

John Adams’ Wife and Children

John Adams married Abigail Smith on October 25, 1764. The two shared a similar personality, a love for books and writing, and were able to be candid with each other. Their love grew through pen pal letters during John’s time working during the war and attending Congress. Together, they had six children: Abigail “Nabby,” John Quincy Adams, Susanna, Charles, Thomas, and Elizabeth.

Though John did not write of his feelings for his children, it can be assumed he pushed them to pursue education if they so wished. His first son, John Quincy Adams, even followed in his father’s footsteps and became the 6th president of the United States.

John Adams’ Death

John Adams died July 4, 1826, from a mix of old age and sickness. Funnily enough, he died the same day as Thomas Jefferson. The two had rekindled their friendship through letter writing in their waning years, and John Adams’ last words were reported as “Thomas Jefferson survives.” He had been unaware that Jefferson had passed hours early. He was remembered by his family and the various institutes set up in his name in memoriam.

John Adams’ Achievements

From peace negotiations to philosophy, John Adams lived a life full of amazing accomplishments.

Why is John Adams Important?

John Adams was the first vice president and second president of the United States. His differing governing style and Federalist nature made him unpopular to many. Still, to those who study his philosophy and his fight for freedom for ALL people, he is a man of great status and intelligence.

Along with his wife, John Adams fought for the rights of enslaved people, put words to feelings so that future politicians may study his work to better aid their politics, and even sired a future president whose own presidency would lead America down a new and exciting path.

Finally, without John Adams, the drafting of the United States Declaration of Independence and the Constitution may have been set to the wayside. His peace negotiations were important during the Revolutionary War, and he stands as important as the other Founding Fathers.

John Adams Facts for Students

• John Adams never owned an enslaved person and was against slavery. Despite this fact, he did little to try and break this habit due to the faltering unity of the South. Abigail Adams, his wife, fought vehemently against slavery.
• After the British Massacre, where British soldiers killed five colonists, John Adams defended seven British soldiers in court and managed to win their case!
• He kept more than 1,000 correspondences with various friends and family members, including Abigail Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and George Washington.
• He fought for the president to have the title “His Highness,” which was quickly vetoed by other members of the Cabinet.
• There is no monument for John Adams in the capital, Washington, D.C. Though many buildings are named for him, there is no statue in his honor.

Artificial resources are artificial resources. It means they don’t occur naturally in the environment and aren’t naturally replenished, so we have to keep producing them, or we’ll run out.

All resources in our lives are either natural or artificial. Here, we’ll go through some examples of each, the difference between them, and the implications these resources have on our world and future.

What are resources?

First, it’s worth discussing what resources are in this context.

In primary school, we will discuss natural and artificial resources in the context of the physical materials we use. In this sense, resources are useful assets or materials we can utilize for our benefit. So, an example of a natural resource would be wood (which occurs naturally), and an example of an artificial resource would be concrete (which doesn’t happen naturally).

All the resources we encounter can be grouped into these two categories – natural and artificial. It’s important to consider where our resources come from, particularly when it comes to finite resources that we can’t take for granted and the use of which may harm our environment. It is especially important when it comes to issues of sustainability and climate change. So let’s look at what resources can fit into each category.

Natural Resource Examples:

As mentioned earlier, these resources occur naturally in the environment and can be harnessed by humans to benefit us. Natural resources can be renewable and non-renewable, covering many materials. Here are a few examples:

• Sand. If you go to the beach, you might see plenty of sand. It hasn’t been artificial, and it occurs naturally. While we can utilize sand to create other artificial resources (like glass), it is a natural resource.

• Gold. Gold also occurs naturally in the environment. It’s most commonly found deep in layers of the Earth. Gold has been found in rocks that are 4.5. billion years old, so it’s a really old resource. It’s thought that gold originates deep in space, originally formed from the explosion of supernova stars. As a relatively rare element, it’s become valuable as a form of currency, jewelry, and artistic material throughout human history.

• Coal. Coal is a natural fossil fuel most often found in underground sedimentary deposits. Humans have mined coal for centuries to use it as a fuel source.

• Wood. Wood is another key natural resource that occurs naturally in trees. We’ve also used it since ancient times as a source of fuel, shelter, and more.

• Iron. Iron occurs naturally in the Earth’s crust and is the fourth most commonly occurring element. We’ve been using it for over 5,000 years, and it’s now used in plenty of alloys like cast iron, steel, and carbon steel. We can use these to build bridges, cars, trains, ships, and loads of other machines that make up our modern world.

In contrast to these natural resources, many artificial resources make up the world around us. We’ll run through a few examples of these below.

Artificial Resource Examples

Artificial resources, then, are artificial and do not occur naturally. People cannot make natural resources as the Earth produces them. People might be able to change and utilize natural resources for their needs, but we can’t produce them. Artificial resources have been created by humans and don’t occur naturally anywhere else – these makeup plenty of the vital resources we use to survive.

Here are a few key examples of artificial resources.

• Concrete is the most popular artificial resource on Earth. It’s the second most utilized resource after water and makes up so much of our history and civilization. It’s made up of water, cement, and aggregates like sand or gravel. We have to mix these ingredients to produce concrete, which is then used to create roads, buildings, and loads.
• Glass is also a commonly used artificial resource. It’s originally made from sand, which occurs naturally, but glass is only the result of artificial production. It’s made by heating sand to 1700°C, so it melts and then sets.
• Paper is another artificial resource that originally comes from trees. Fibers from extracted from trees and converted into pulp. It is then combined with water, and with the help of a paper-making machine, it’s flattened, dried, and turned into sheets of paper.
• Nylon is artificial as it is made from artificial polymers which are chemically processed. It is also used in other clothing, nets, toothbrushes, and other items.
• Steel. Steel is made from 2 natural materials: Iron and carbon. Because these materials have been artificially processed, steel is an artificial resource. Nevertheless, it’s commonly used in buildings, planes, pots, pans, and other utensils.

At its simplest, Climate is the long-term pattern of weather in a given area, typically averaged over 30 years. To properly define the climate, meteorologists will record a wide range of statistics related to the weather conditions in the specified area, including (but not limited to!) temperature, rain and snowfall, wind speed and direction, humidity, and atmospheric pressure.

Over the years (30 years is the standard period, as we’ve already mentioned), scientists carefully calculate the average of each of these statistics and compare them year by year. It allows them to build up a picture of what the weather conditions in that place are like, and further research can help to predict changes in the environment or even to work out what an area was like many millions of years ago!

It is especially important in our modern world since, due to the actions of humans, we’re experiencing a great deal of change in climates worldwide, some leading to widespread environmental damage and even devastating natural disasters. By learning more about climate and how it changes over time, we can understand what’s happening to our planet and how we can help it recover.

What causes climate?

Well, a lot of things! Different parts of the world can have dramatically different climates thanks to many factors, all of which work together to create different long-term weather patterns.

Here’s a breakdown of some of the most influential factors:

Latitude

Latitude means how far north or south of the equator a given place is. Because the Earth tilts on its axis, and because the
Earth is spherical. The Sun’s rays strike the Earth at
Different angles. The tropics, the regions closest to the Equator, receive the most heat and light because the sun’s rays strike them almost directly. Because of this, temperatures in the tropics are warm year-round. The temperate zones, which are a little further away, have moderate conditions – typically, they’re quite cold in the winter and quite warm in the summer but never reach the extremes of heat that you would find in the tropics or polar zones. The polar zones, the furthest away from the equator, receive the least heat and light because the sun’s rays strike at a very low angle. As a result, temperatures in polar regions are typically extremely cold all year round.

Elevation

Elevation means the height of a place above sea level. On average, air temperature drops about 6.5ºC for every 1000 m altitude: the higher the elevation, the lower the temperature. It means that in a mountainous region, for example, the climate at the top of the mountains will be much colder than at the base.

Topography

Topography means the physical features present in the landscape – natural ones, such as mountains, lakes, valleys, or forests, and artificial ones, like cities, farms, and roads. For example, climates often differ, sometimes quite dramatically, on either side of a mountain. It is because of the way that air currents move.

As air rises over a mountain, it cools. As it cools, it condenses and releases moisture in the form of rain (or sometimes snow, depending on how cold it is). It is called the windward side.

As the now-dry air flows over the mountain, it descends and warms, typically producing deserts. It is called the leeward side. It is most common in regions with long mountain ranges, where the mountains form a long barrier that causes this process to happen over a large area. The dry area is called a ‘rain shadow’ and can extend hundreds of km downwind of a mountain range.

Water Bodies

Land gains and loses heat much faster than water – even when the land is covered in snow, unless it’s cold, bodies of water won’t typically freeze solid, and the bigger the body of water, the harder it is to freeze it. The temperature of a large body of water can influence the temperature of the air above it – the residual warmth can help to warm the air around it a little. Because of this (and some other, much more fiddly factors we don’t need to touch on today), areas close to large bodies of water, whether that’s the sea or a source of fresh water, such as a large river or lake, tend to have much less variation in temperature than areas that are ‘dryer.’

There are a lot of factors that can cause variations in this. Still, in practice, you can see this all around the world – coastal areas are typically much less prone to intensely hot summers and extremely cold winters than areas further inland – although they usually have more variable day-to-day weather as a trade-off!

Dry air gains and loses heat much faster than humid air, so deserts have large daily temperature ranges – baking hot during the day and freezing at night.

The ocean’s currents also play a part in shaping climate – especially in coastal regions. The currents carry hot and cold air along with them, which can help shape seasonal weather patterns along the path of the current, as warm or cold air influences atmospheric circulation patterns (we’ll be talking about that in more detail next). Ocean currents may be considerably warmer or colder than the normal air temperature for that latitude. It can lead to quite jarring effects if the current’s path changes as the sea and air become either colder or warmer.

Atmospheric Circulation

Solar energy and the earth’s rotation create motion in the planet’s atmosphere called planetary winds. There are three basic wind systems in each hemisphere: Polar Easterlies, Northeast or Southeast Tradewinds, and Prevailing Westerlies. These winds blow air masses with distinct regions of origin (ie. Formed over land or water, formed at certain
Latitudes). Winds move warm air toward the poles and cool air
Toward the equator.

These hot and cold air belts shift seasonally as the earth spins on its axis and different latitudes receive direct sunlight. In the Northern Hemisphere, belts shift northwards in the summer, and
Southwards in the winter, whereas in the Southern Hemisphere, it’s the other way around.

Vegetation

Vegetation influences how much of the sun’s energy is absorbed and how quickly this energy is released, which affects the climate.

Plants need light energy from the sun to produce their food via photosynthesis. During transpiration, plants release the water vapor produced during photosynthesis from their leaves into the air, which makes the air around them more humid. Some plants even release particles that promote the formation of clouds.

Large areas of vegetation – especially forests – often act like large bodies of water – they trap heat, so they have a warming effect on the area around them.

All these different factors will shape the climate in a given location.

What’s the difference between weather and climate?

We’ve already touched on it a little. Still, when you boil it down, weather refers to the short-term conditions of the atmosphere, i.e., the specific weather conditions experienced at one moment. In contrast, climate refers to a place’s average weather patterns and shapes over an extended period. The weather can be pretty variable daily – especially here in the UK! – but the climate is the overall weather pattern in the long term and changes much less frequently.

For example, if you described the weather, you’d say something like, ‘today is sunny and warm.’ But, on the other hand, if you were telling the.’

What different types of climates are there?

According to scientists, there are roughly five main types of climate, although there are subgroups within these 5. They are:

• Tropical. In this hot and humid zone, the average temperatures are greater than 18°C year-round, with more than 59 inches of precipitation each year.
• Arid (Dry). These climate zones are so dry because moisture rapidly evaporates from the air, and there is very little precipitation. Of course, they’re often pretty hot, but this isn’t a requirement.
• Temperate. This zone typically has warm and humid summers with thunderstorms and mild winters.
• Continental. These regions have warm to cool summers and very cold winters. In the winter, this zone can experience snowstorms, strong winds, and very cold temperatures—sometimes below -30°C!
• Polar. In the polar climate zones, it’s extremely cold. Even in summer, the temperatures here never go higher than ten °C!

What’s climate change?

Climate change describes a change in a region’s average conditions — such as temperature and rainfall — over a long period. For example, 20,000 years ago, much of the Northern Hemisphere was covered in ice and glaciers.

Global climate change refers to the average long-term changes over the entire Earth. These include warming temperatures and changes in precipitation, as well as the effects of Earth’s warming, such as:

• Rising sea levels
• Shrinking mountain glaciers
• Ice is melting at a faster rate than usual in Greenland, Antarctica, and the Arctic
• Changes in flower and plant blooming times.

Earth’s climate has constantly been changing — even long before humans came into the picture. However, scientists have observed unusual changes recently. For example, Earth’s average temperature has increased much more quickly than expected over the past 150 years. It is largely due to human activity – around 150-200 years ago, we began using huge amounts of fossil fuels to power the Industrial Revolution. Over centuries, we’ve been cutting down large quantities of Earth’s natural forests to create more farmland and space for building.

Certain gases in Earth’s atmosphere block heat from escaping. It is called the greenhouse effect. These gases keep Earth warm like the glass in a greenhouse keeps plants warm. Unfortunately, burning fossil fuels produces a lot of carbon-based gases that alter our atmosphere – it traps a lot more heat, causing Earth to get hotter and hotter steadily. Deforestation contributes to the problem – plants take in carbon dioxide and convert it into oxygen, which helps to balance the gases in our atmosphere and keep them at the ideal level for life on our planet. Losing huge amounts of forests every year means that we lose that extra source of oxygen and have fewer methods to get rid of the excess carbon dioxide.

We’ve already started to see some jarring effects of climate change in recent years – the planet is getting hotter, the polar ice caps are melting, and natural disasters like hurricanes, floods, and wildfires are becoming more common and more severe. Many species of plants and animals are becoming endangered as their habitats are either directly destroyed by humans or changed beyond what we can handle by what we’re doing to the planet.

However, although this all seems very grim, there’s still hope! Conservation efforts worldwide are trying to protect the natural world, defending the habitats of many species. In addition, there’s been a global push towards stopping using fossil fuels and switching to renewable forms of energy, such as solar power and wind turbines. We can also help do our part as individuals by recycling and limiting our energy usage. Of course, it’s not perfect and will take a lot of work from everyone, but Earth’s our home, and it’s our responsibility to take care of it.

Born on February 11, 1847, in Milan, Ohio, Thomas Alva Edison was the youngest of seven children! His father, Samuel, was a political activist, and his mother, Nancy, was an accomplished school teacher.

Nancy hugely influenced Edison’s early life, homeschooling him after his teachers saw him as a difficult child after only a few months. She taught him important arithmetic skills, reading, and writing at home.

Thomas Alva Edison: The Early Years

As mentioned, Thomas was the seventh and last child of Samuel Edison, Jr., and Nancy Elliot Edison, but he was only the fourth to survive. Very early on in Thomas’ life, he developed problems with his hearing, which are believed to have been caused by a familial proclivity to mastoiditis. This struggle with hearing had a massive impact on Edison’s life and would go on to influence many of his inventions.

While we know Thomas Edison as a brilliant inventor, he was not such a brilliant student. In 1854, Samuel Edison got a new job as the lighthouse keeper and carpenter on the Fort Gratiot military post near Port Huron, Michigan, and Thomas began attending a school there. Despite officially enrolling in a school, Thomas was not a regular attendee by any stretch of the imagination. For the next five years, Thomas attended school fairly infrequently. The school didn’t seem to interest young Thomas Edison, perhaps partly because a lot of the learning and instruction was by repetition, and Thomas was hard of hearing. Thomas was, however, extremely imaginative and became an avid reader.

Unsurprisingly, in 1859, Edison quit school completely and began working as a train boy on the railroad between Detroit and Port Huron. During this time, Edison started to learn telegraphy (using a telegraph). Then, in 1863, Edison became an apprentice telegrapher.

On the original Morse telegraph, messages were received and inscribed using a series of dots and dashes that would then be decoded and read. The system meant that Edison’s difficulty in hearing would not hinder him in this line of work. However, telegraph receivers were quickly fitted with a sounding key, allowing telegraph operators to read messages via a series of clicks. This change meant that Edison began to struggle with telegraphy and continued to throughout his six years in the profession.

Thomas put his bright and curious mind to work around his hearing problems by improving the devices and equipment that he was using. By January 1869, his work was beginning to pay off, and he had made great progress with a device called a duplex telegrapher. This device was able to transmit two messages simultaneously on one wire. He was also making progress with a printer capable of converting electrical signals to letters. Inspired by his capacity for innovation, Edison quit his job in telegraphy to become a full-time inventor and entrepreneur.

Thomas Alva Edison, The Inventor

Now a fully-fledged inventor, Thomas Alva Edison moved to New York City and entered into a partnership with a man named Frank L. Pope. Pope was an electrical expert of some acclaim, and he and Edison worked together to create the Edison Universal Stock Printer and a range of other printing telegraphs. The telegraph industry at the time was incredibly competitive and largely dominated by the Western Union Telegraph Company. Edison continued focusing on his inventions, specifically improving the automatic telegraph system for the Western Union Telegraph Company’s rivals.

The automatic telegraph, which could record messages through a chemical reaction caused by electrical transmissions, did not have much commercial success. However, working on the device allowed Edison to grow significantly in his knowledge of chemistry. It would form the foundation for his electric pen and mimeograph development. These devices played a key role in the early machine industry and eventually led to the creation of the phonograph.

The Phonograph

Often regarded as his most creative and original invention, the phonograph is a huge part of Edison’s legacy. At the time, the telephone was considered a variation of acoustic telegraphy. Much like he had done for the automatic telegraph, Edison was intent on creating a device that would transcribe signals as they were received from the telephone. These signals, which would be in the form of a human voice, would then be able to be delivered as telegraph messages. Back then, the telephone was not used as a method of person-to-person communication.

Working off the back of some early research, including that of a French inventor named Léon Scott, Edison began his next invention. Previous studies had theorized that if each sound could be recorded, it would create a shape similar to photography, i.e., good writing. Edison built on this idea by using a stylus-tipped carbon transmitter to make impressions on a strip of wax paper. It would allow each sound to be ‘written.’ In doing this, Edison discovered that the faint indentations made by the transmitter made a loose reproduction of the sound when the paper was pulled back beneath the stylus.

Eventually, Edison’s phonograph could record a person’s voice and play it back through sound vibrations and a needle on a steel drum. For example, the nursery rhyme “Mary had a little lamb” was recorded on this device by Edison.

In December 1877, Edison revealed the new tinfoil phonograph. In this device, the strip of paper was replaced with a cylinder wrapped in tinfoil. People were initially unsure about this device, but the initial skepticism and confusion were swiftly followed by widespread praise. The invention of this tinfoil phonograph made Edison a household name, and he gained worldwide recognition for his genius. Yet, shockingly, it took ten years before the phonograph was made available to purchase by the general public.

The Light Bulb

You can’t discuss Thomas Alva Edison without talking about the light bulb. Edison himself was not the original inventor of the light bulb, but he was the one who created the technology that made it suitable for public use. An English inventor named Humphry Davy was the inventor of the very first electric arc lamp in the 1800s. It was Davy’s invention that sparked Edison to create his own. Edison was not the first to embark on this journey. Many scientists before him had tried to make electric light bulbs using a vacuum, but all had failed. Edison began by purchasing the patented design of two of these previous scientists, named Woodward and Evans, hoping to improve on it. In 1879, Edison secured a patent for his light bulb design, which he then went on to manufacture and market for commercial use.

The next year, in January 1880, Edison began developing a specific company dedicated to supplying electricity to power and light cities worldwide. This company was the ‘Edison Illuminating Company,’ which would later become General Electric.

Other Notable Inventions

Besides the lightbulb, Edison is also responsible for many other inventions that have changed the world as we know it.

By the late 1880s, Edison was on the hunt for something that could do what the phonograph did for the ears, but for eyes instead. Behold the first film camera and viewer! Edison’s company became a successful early film studio with this invention, creating many silent films between 1890 and 1918.

Edison is also responsible for inventing alkaline storage batteries. Automobiles were developed in the late 1800s. However, early electric car batteries used to leak acid, so Edison went about creating a reliable battery. By 1910 it was in production! Although Henry Ford’s success with the Model T car took the limelight, Edison’s battery became one of his most successful products. The battery was used in trains, submarines, and mining lamps.

The Legacy of Thomas Alva Edison

Thomas Edison was extremely influential in the history of invention and science. Throughout his life and career, Edison created a huge number of patents, including:

• 389 patents for electric light and power;
• 195 patents for the phonograph;
• 150 patents for the telegraph;
• 141 patents for storage batteries;
• 34 patents for the telephone.

The method of Edison’s invention has also been super influential for modern scientists. Although all of Edison’s greatest work was formed out of necessity, he would analyze a situation or devise and see how he could create something to improve it.

Edison was different from many other inventors at the time, who were characteristically aloof and preferred to work as part of a one-person operation. While these inventors make for interesting stories, their solitary approach often hinders their progress. On the other hand, Edison had a completely different attitude toward invention. In addition to being a creative genius, Edison understood the importance of having a business-savvy mind. As a result, Edison created an entire establishment of inventions through which he could gather support and financial backing to fuel his inventions. Furthermore, as his boss, Edison was free to embark upon any project that took his fancy, which resulted in many unfinished endeavors. Still, this freedom with which he could work kept his creativity alive and allowed him to keep inventing new and interesting designs.

Edison’s illustrious career and fascinating ‘can-do’ attitude have made him a key historical figure. His journey from a poor, inattentive school student and humble trainboy to an accomplished, wealthy inventor and businessman has epitomized the American dream. For this reason, many people idolize Edison as the picture of success.

In terms of Edison’s personality, he was known for being somewhat of an egomaniac. As a boss, Edison was extremely erratic, shouting at his employees one minute and joking with them the next. While certainly not boring, this temperament did not make him a great family man. Edison was largely neglectful towards his entire family and did not take the role of father or husband very seriously. Still, he was a figure that fascinated the public, and by the time he reached his mid-30s, Edison was believed to be the best-known American in the world. In the years after his death in 1931, Thomas Edison came to be regarded as responsible for laying the foundation for the technological and social revolution of the modern electric world.

Interesting facts about Thomas Alva Edison

• Edison’s first patent was for an electro-graphic vote recorder in 1869.
• A case of childhood scarlet fever left Edison completely deaf in one ear and partially deaf in the other.
• Thomas’ two children had Morse code-inspired nicknames that point to his involvement in the telegraph industry. Marion “Dot” Edison and Charles “Dash” Edison were their names.
• One of Edison’s less successful inventions was creepy talking dolls. Nevertheless, he sold 500 of them!
• Thomas was a huge fan of Shakespeare’s plays. However, he gave up on being an actor because of his shyness and high-pitched voice.
• However, he is the first person ever to project a motion picture. It happened on April 23, 1896.
• He turned down the opportunity to improve his hearing via an operation, as he was worried he wouldn’t be able to think the same in a noisier world.
• 1882 proved to be Edison’s most successful year in terms of patent applications. He was successful with a whopping 106 applications!
• Edison had over 2500 books, all full of recordings from his experiments.
• At thirteen, Edison published his newspaper, “The Grand Trunk Herald,” which became a hit!

Semantic Pragmatic Disorder (SPD) is a communication disorder. People with SPD often have difficulty processing information given to them and communicating socially appropriately. In addition, those with the condition might not understand the unwritten language rules. For example, they might not always understand sarcasm or figurative language.

The name comes from the words semantic and pragmatic. Semantic refers to the relationship between words and their meanings, while practical means the ability to make language make sense in context.

What are other names for Semantic Pragmatic Disorder?

Semantic Pragmatic Disorder is now diagnosed as Social Communication Disorder, but the two names both refer to the same thing. As with many learning differences, the names have changed over time.

What are the signs of Semantic Pragmatic Disorder?

Semantic Pragmatic Disorder is similar to Autism Spectrum Disorder in some ways. For example, there is an overlap in the difficulties with language that people with SPD and ASD face. However, people with SPD do not necessarily have the other behaviors often present in ASD, such as special interests, sticking to routines, and food selectivity.

The overall signs of SPD are that children have problems understanding what other people mean when speaking and speaking themselves.

Features that people with SPD might show are:

• Delayed language development
• Repeating phrases in the wrong context
• Memorizing phrases as they learn to talk, rather than forming sentences of their own
• Finding it hard to decide when to use “I” and “you” in sentences – getting pronouns wrong or mixed up
• Finding it hard to understand different verb tenses and the time they are referring to
• Difficulty understanding questions and answering them appropriately
• Struggles with following conversations, including laughing at jokes later than everyone else
• Stuttering or cluttering speech
• Taking things literally, particularly idioms and figurative language
• Reading body language

These things can all impact how people with SPD might make and maintain friendships because they struggle with language and communication. For example, people with SPD might have wide vocabularies and be quite talkative. If you listen closely, however, you might find that they are not using language appropriately. Again, it is because SPD is a communication and processing disorder rather than a language disorder.

How can people with SPD be supported?

Children’s needs can evolve, and SPD might be a stage in their development. However, they might struggle with communication for some time. It can cause unhappiness if they feel misunderstood and can’t communicate effectively.

Children with SPD may need to work with a Speech and Language Therapist to help them gain confidence and understanding around communication skills.

Here are some strategies that teachers and parents can use to support children with SPD:

• Using very clear language to give instructions. For example, tell children to “put your clothes away and make your bed” rather than “tidy your room.”
• Using a child’s name at the beginning of a sentence directed at them rather than expecting them to realize you are talking to them
• Working in smaller groups to help children focus more easily
• Being patient and allowing children as much time as they need to communicate
• Encouraging children to ask for clarification if they haven’t understood what you are saying

Of course, these are only a few suggestions. It is best to work alongside a teacher or therapist to help children with SPD to improve their communication skills.

What is a school report? In its most basic sense, a school report is a written account from a school about how a child is getting on in their classes. It assesses their performance and provides a valuable tool to parents, students, and teachers. In addition, a school report is a way for everyone to partner and collaborate on ensuring children attain their best possible grades and achieve their potential.

How are reports written?

There are strict rules about what teachers can and cannot write in their children’s school reports. For example, they cannot make personal predictions or use emotional terms like pleased, surprised, or disappointed. Instead, many teachers use what is sometimes called a Word Bank to write reports. A Word Bank is a collection of phrases, statements, or sentences that can be quickly assembled and fit together to provide the text for a school report. It can make writing a school report for a whole class or more much faster while giving a personal insight into how children are getting on and progressing academically.

How have children been graded academically?

Most school reports now are called progression reports, showing how a child performs academically against curriculum benchmarks. Comparing this with previous reports gives an insight into how children are progressing and developing and provides a way to benchmark them against their fellow students. In addition, buying academic grading as

How is a school report valuable?

School reports are valuable because they are the main way children’s grades and achievements are communicated to students and parents. School reports are a great tool to help children develop and attain their best grades and exam results, but they are also really useful for parents and teachers.

For parents, their child’s time in school can be a bit of a mystery. As a result, it can be difficult sometimes to understand how to help children and support them with their school work beyond ensuring they have completed their homework. A school report can help give a clearer picture of opportunities for extra support and help in a particular subject. Also, they show where children may be excelling or doing well, which is always a cause for celebration.

For teachers, compiling school reports can be useful for gaining insight into how a whole class is performing and progressing. Writing reports is a good time for reflection and can be useful for identifying trends, challenges, and opportunities among all of a class’s students. In addition, by using curriculum-based benchmarking, school reports can show where a whole class is against the national curriculum and how they are performing against their year group nationally, given the aims and requirements set out in the curriculum.

Duck-Billed Dinosaurs

The first duck-billed dinosaurs were discovered at the beginning of the 19th century. The remains of the first duck-billed dinosaur were found in New Jersey in the United States. This dinosaur was believed to have been around 30 feet (ca. 9 m) long, weighing a whopping 2 tons. This dinosaur’s body was long and low to the ground, with a proportionately small head. Its most distinctive feature, of course, was its bill, which was shaped like a large duck beak.

Duck-billed dinosaurs are members of the hadrosaur family, a group of animals often called ‘duck-billed dinosaurs’ or ‘duck-billed reptiles.’ Hadrosaurs are some of the largest land animals in the known world.

Herbivores

Duck-billed dinosaurs were herbivorous, meaning they exclusively ate plant materials. Their diet is believed to have been made up primarily of a mixture of twigs and stems. To cope with their plant-heavy diet, duck-billed dinosaurs had specially designed teeth. They had between 45 and 60 teeth per row in their mouths, and some dinosaurs had six rows! These types of dinosaurs also didn’t have permanent teeth. Unlike humans, who only get one set of adult teeth to last a lifetime, duck-billed dinosaurs’ teeth are in a constant state of renewal, with the old ones continually getting replaced with new ones.

What did they look like?

Studies have shown that duck-billed dinosaurs are likely to have walked on their two hind legs when they were young and moved onto all fours when they got older. To cope with this change, the legs of these dinosaurs would grow much stronger as they aged to cope with the weight of their full bodies. But, on the other hand, their hind legs got smaller as they got older, as they no longer bear the dinosaur’s full weight.

List of duck-billed dinosaurs

• Anatotitan

The Anatotitan is believed to have existed right until the extinction of the dinosaurs. It had a long snout similar to that of a horse. Its bill was void of any teeth, as all of its teeth were located in rows much further back in its mouth and cheeks.

Discovered: 1908

Length: 10 meters

Weight: 3500 kg

• Bactrosaurus

The Bactrosaurus existed during the Middle Cretaceous Period around 95 million years ago. A feature that it shared with many other duck-billed dinosaurs, including the Anatotitan, was the toothless bill at the front of its mouth. All of its teeth, then, were located in the back of its mouth in the cheek area. Interestingly, the Bactrosaurus’ teeth were self-sharpening, which made it easy for them to tear through tough plant materials. In addition, this dinosaur had spine-like projections that jutted out along its back and tail. These projections gave the Bactrosaurus its name, ‘Club-Spined Lizard.’

Discovered: 1931

Length: 6 meters

Weight: 1600 kg

• Corythosaurus

The Corythosaurus existed about 77 to 75 million years ago during the Upper Cretaceous Period. Like other hadrosaurs, the Corythosaurus had a toothless bill at the front of its mouth and sharp teeth in the back. However, one of the most prominent features of this dinosaur was its helmet-like head. In addition, there was a crest on its head that it is believed to have used to make a loud horn noise by pushing air from its nostrils through the crest.

Discovered: 1912

Length: 10 meters

Weight: 4000 kg

• Edmontosaurus

Remains of the Edmontosaurus were discovered in 1917 across various parts of Western North America. From these remains, scientists have deduced that these dinosaurs migrated according to the seasons. The Edmontosaurus had the same mouth construction as other hadrosaurs. Interestingly, the Edmontosaurus’ skull shows that it may have had large inflatable flaps of skin near its nose, which it could have used to attract a mate or create a loud, honking sound.

Discovered: 1917

Length: 14 meters

Weight: 3600 kg

• Gryposaurus

The Gryposaurus lived during the Late Cretaceous in North America, around 80 to 75 million years ago. The remains that have been found show that this dinosaur had small polygon-shaped scales all over its body. It also had a large bump on the front end of its nose, which is how it got its name.

Discovered: 1914

Length: 9 meters

Weight: 3000 kilograms

• Hadrosaurus

The Hadrosaurus was first discovered in 1838, and very little is known about it. However, we understand that the Hadrosaurus is likely not to have had a crest, like many other duck-billed dinosaurs.

Discovered: 1838

Length: 9 meters

Weight: 3000 kilograms

• Hypacrosaurus

The Hypacrosaurus was alive during the Late Cretaceous Period and had many features common among duck-billed dinosaurs. For instance, it had the standard toothless bill at the front of its mouth, with rows of self-sharpening teeth in the back cheek area. These teeth were able to self-sharpen as the top set of teeth were positioned so that they would grind against the bottom set.

One of the most prominent features of the Hypacrosaurus was its long, stiff tail. This tail is believed to have been used to balance the animal as it ran quickly from side to side to avoid predators. This dinosaur also had super big eyes compared to many other hadrosaurs, which it used to detect predators.

Discovered: 1913

Length: 9 meters

Weight: 3000 kilograms

• Lambeosaurus

The Lambeosaurus was a huge hadrosaur that existed during the Late Cretaceous period of North America. This dinosaur was a massive 45 feet (ca. 14 m) in length, making it one of the biggest hadrosaurs. In addition, this dinosaur had a prominent crest on its head that resembled a protruding axe.

Discovered: 1914

Length: 15 meters

Weight: 6000 kilograms

• Maiasaura

The Maiasaura existed around 75 million years ago during the Upper Cretaceous Period. This type of dinosaur is believed to have stayed in nesting herds, much like birds do today. In terms of their appearance, the Maiasaura had a long, narrow snout, much like horses have today. They also had a small crest above each eye but did not have the crest on their head that many other hadrosaurs had.

Discovered: 1978

Length: 9 meters

Weight: 4000 kilograms

• Parasaurolophus

The Parasaurolophus was alive during the Late Cretaceous Period, around 76 to 73 million years ago. As a result, it shared many of the common physical features of hadrosaurs, such as its toothless bill, rows of teeth in its cheeks, strong rear legs, and a prominent head crest.

Discovered: 1922

Length: 12 meters

Weight: 3000 kilograms

• Prosaurolophus

The Prosaurolophus was discovered in 1912 and is believed to have lived during the Late Cretaceous Period across North America. This duck-billed dinosaur was a medium-sized hadrosaur that walked bipedally (on its hind legs), leaving its front legs available for self-defense and to help it feed. Studies have shown that the Prosaurolophus could run on all fours when necessary, but it chose not to for most of the time. In addition, unlike many hadrosaurs, the Prosaurolophus did not have a head crest but had a small crest above its eyes.

Discovered: 1912

Length: 9 meters

Weight: 3000 kilograms

• Protohadros

The Protohadros lived around 95 million years ago, during the Late Cretaceous Period. It was an extremely fruitful time on Earth, with warm temperatures and lots of vegetation available. This type of duck-billed dinosaur had the standard toothless bill and is believed to have had rows of thousands of tiny teeth in its cheeks. These teeth are thought to have been used for crushing up plant matter. This hadrosaur is super important, as scientists believe it may be the ancestor of all other duck-billed dinosaurs.

Discovered: 1994

Length: 6 meters

Weight: 1000 kilograms

• Saurolophus

The Saurolophus existed around 70 million years ago, during the Late Cretaceous period in Asia and North America. This dinosaur was a medium size and had the standard head crest that many hadrosaurs possessed.

Discovered: 1911

Length: 9 meters

Weight: 2000 kilograms

• Shantungosaurus

The Shantungosaurus lived around 80 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous Period in Asia. The Shantungosaurus is believed to have been the largest of the duck-billed dinosaurs, weighing an incredible 5000 kg. Like many other hadrosaurs, the Shantungosaurus had a long, tapering tail that it would have used for balance and as a weapon. It also had the same mouth structure, with a toothless bill at the front and rows of self-sharpening teeth in the cheek area.

Discovered: 1973

Length: 15 meters

Weight: 5000 kilograms

When children begin writing is much earlier than you might think. Children’s writing skills can start with emergent writing skills. Emergent writing is the first step taken by children to learn to write. Emergent writing develops as children understand that writing is a form of communication and that their marks on paper can be used to convey a message.

Young children from as early as two years old start to imitate the act of writing. They begin by creating drawings and symbolic markings representing their ideas and thinking. A child’s writing will eventually evolve into proper letters and words, but all the visual and written communication they practice before this stage is considered emergent writing.

Writing is an important part of children’s literacy development, so children benefit from regular experience writing every day and from being encouraged to write.

How does emergent writing develop?

Children improve their writing abilities and understanding as they continue to be exposed to writing in the world around them. You can look at how this emergent writing changes in different areas.

As children’s emergent writing develops, they learn that writing can have a purpose and be meaningful.

Children’s development of their emergent writing skills also includes improving their skills with the letter and word writing, spelling, and building up their alphabetic knowledge.

The ability to write phrases and sentences that can communicate meaning is another important aim of teachers working with emergent writers.

This part of emergent writing grows in early childhood as children learn to express themselves in experimental writing and orally. For example, it might mean learning through composing stories, writing notes and making lists, or speaking words and phrases that somebody else can transcribe into a written script.

These different aspects of emergent writing can be grouped into three main areas:

• Conceptual knowledge – The purpose of writing.
• Procedural knowledge – The technical ability needed for writing.
• Generative knowledge – The ability to write meaningful phrases.

How can you teach children writing skills?

Here are some tips to encourage your child to develop early writing skills.

1. Sit right to write: Good posture is important for any writing. Encourage children to sit with their feet flat on the floor, straight backs (no heads on the table), and relaxed shoulders.
2. Get ready to write by doodling first: Doodling fosters healthy brain development, the ability to retain information, and future creativity, yet it can be overlooked and brushed off as insignificant. On the contrary, doodling is one of the most impactful ways children learn; for young children, it’s one of their first steps toward handwriting and drawing.
3. Learn how to hold a pencil properly: Before any child can learn to write, they must develop the correct way of holding a pencil. This proper grip is called the pincer grasp. To practice this, give them the crayon/pencil so that it’s pointing towards them. Then, when they pick it up and lift their hand, they should automatically use the pincer grasp!

What does emergent writing look like?

Emergent writing develops over multiple stages, including scribbles and mock letters that may look like letters but are shapes and imitations. Children’s writing develops on a continuum described in the stages of emergent writing below.

It’s usual to see lots of letters arranged into nonsensical strings as children develop their letter formation skills, and it’s beneficial for children to practice this pretend writing during play.

What are the stages of emergent writing?

1. Drawing and imitative writing – children draw scribbled lines aimed to imitate adult writing
2. Copying words – they then begin to copy individual words from books and posters
3. Drawing strings of letters – a child writes random letters that are properly formed but which have no relationship to proper sounds
4. Phonetic writing – children begin to write using incorrectly spelled words that at least make sense when read
5. Conventional spelling – children will eventually learn basic spellings and begin to write using proper words.

How do you support emergent writing?

As emergent writing develops among young learners, teachers and parents play an important role in supporting them. The key is for teachers to share the joy and satisfaction of writing and encourage children to communicate and record their thoughts.

Teaching methods, including demonstration and activities like name-writing, will improve children’s emergent writing skills. Teachers can promote name-writing activities and other opportunities to develop fine motor skills at multiple points over the day. For example, this helps to encourage finger dexterity. Reminding children to use writing in their different activities around the classroom or at home is another fruitful way of encouraging children’s writing.

Using lots of different writing tools is a good way to improve fine motor skills. It’s also a great excuse to create art with your children!

Writing in the classroom

Here are some ideas you can use to foster emergent writing in the classroom:

• Provide a range of writing materials around the school.
• Create centers in the school concentrated on writing.
• You can use clipboards to encourage children to make observations.
• A mailbox in the school can be a focal point for your letter-writing activities.
• A writing pad in your classroom’s play area can be used as part of play-based activities, for example, to take orders at a restaurant.
• Children can use writing materials to keep a record of caring for class plants or pets.

Name writing for emergent writers

The first word a child writes will probably be their own! Names will have meaning to children in developing their sense of autonomy and relationships with other people.

You can encourage your children’s confidence with writing by asking them to sign a register in the classroom or sign-in sheets when they use different elements in the school, such as the class computer. You can also ask your children to write their names on their creative work.

Name-writing exercises can encourage children to learn to write the letters in their names and to have fun experimenting with the craft in writing.

Model writing

You can help your emergent writers through demonstrations with modeled writing. Showing your children that you write and read daily will help them understand that reports can be meaningful.

For example, you could write out messages on a display board at the beginning of the day, or you could write down a story that your children are coming up with together.

You can explicitly model writing to your children by explaining the writing process and what you are doing.

You can also provide opportunities for your children to work with others on their writing or encourage them to decorate the classroom with hand-painted signs.

What are the characteristics of an emergent writer?

These are some of the characteristics of an emergent writer, which can help you tailor your teaching intentions.

Emergent writers know that language can be recorded, they want to write, and they can write at one of the early stages of emergent writing. Emergent writers can eventually use playful markings to communicate meaning, which signals that they know how to use written language.

Emergent writing skills, such as name-writing proficiency, can be important predictors of children’s future writing and reading skills.

What is an example of emergent literacy?

Educators use emergent literacy to talk about language and literacy skills related to emergent writing but mainly focus on developing reading skills.

Before entering formal education, children engage in many literacy-rich activities such as storybook reading and pretending to write or draw.

It’s important to recognize that young children already develop reading and writing behaviors from different activities outside the classroom, such as rhyming wordplay and turning literacy themes into play.

Both writing experiences at home and school are important to helping children improve their writing skills.

What are emergent literacy skills?

These are the basic skills that are linked with emergent literacy:

• Print motivation – Interest and enjoyment of books.
• Vocabulary – Being able to name things.
• Print awareness – Knowing how to handle books and follow words.
• Narrative skills – Telling stories and describing things.
• Letter knowledge – Discerning different letters, their names, and sounds.
• Phonological awareness – Recognising the smaller sounds in words.

Why is handwriting practice important?

Handwriting practice is important because it helps children develop fine motor skills. These small movements in hand and wrist control the pencil grip. When children begin school, they are at an age where their motor skills are still developing, so they need to get lots of practice.

Fluency is a key component of good handwriting. As children develop their writing skills, they can incorporate seamless joins and confident pen strokes into their script.

Encouraging drawing as writing

While handwriting practice becomes essential to children’s emergent writing, children can benefit from having time and space to engage in drawing experiences.

Giving children the tools to express themselves through drawing can facilitate their emergent writing and written expression. Drawing can act as an anchor for children’s ideas as they experiment with letter formation. Teachers can also annotate their children’s drawings. It can help to record the child’s narration of their work and encourage children to incorporate writing in their texts in the future.