Teaching Strategies, Tactics, and Methods

Born on November 7th, 1728, Captain James Cook was a British naval captain, navigator, and explorer. In 1770, he famously charted New Zealand and the Great Barrier Reef on his ship. He also disproved the existence of Terra Australis, which was believed to be a southern continent.

At 18 years old, Captain Cook became an apprentice in the British merchant navy. By 1758 he had been to Canada as part of his service to the navy, and he was the master of his ship!

Cook studied many subjects, including astronomy, geography, math, and charting. The Royal Navy recognized his skill and knowledge of astronomy, which led to him becoming the leader of an astronomical expedition. He was also promoted to the role of Lieutenant on his First Voyage.

What did Captain Cook discover?

Captain Cook sailed around the world twice during his lifetime! He went on three voyages that uncovered important information about the world.

First Voyage (1768-1771)

In 1766, Cook was hired to travel to the Pacific Ocean to observe and record a transit of Venus across the Sun. This is when the planet Venus passes between the sun and another world. You can see Venus from Earth as a small black dot moving across the sun during a transit! It was thought that measuring and recording this would enable experts to calculate the distance between the sun and the Earth.

Cook began the trip in 1768 and arrived in Tahiti, French Polynesia, in 1769, but his scientific equipment was not precise enough to measure the transit accurately.

The Royal Navy had also given Cook special instructions for this voyage. He was to search for the mythical continent of Terra Australis and, if it was uninhabited, take possession of it in the name of the King of Great Britain. Accordingly, Cook explored the South Pacific with the help of a Tahitian named Tupaia and reached New Zealand.

Cook mapped the entire coastline of New Zealand for the first time, then continued to map and chart the east coast of Australia. Cook and his crew members were the first known Europeans to see Australia in 1770! They landed at Botany Bay and made contact with some Indigenous people.

The Great Barrier Reef was also discovered during this trip, but Cook didn’t find the continent of Terra Australis.

Second Voyage (1772-1775)

For his second voyage, Cook set sail to look for Terra Australis again at the Royal Navy’s request. However, even though Cook was convinced that this mythical continent did not exist, a Scottish geographer named Alexander Dalrymple refused to believe him.

On this trip, Cook traveled through the Pacific Ocean and became the first European to cross the Antarctic Circle on January 17, 1773. He mapped many previously unknown islands and societies in the Pacific and landed at Friendly Island and Easter Island. He also firmly proved that the continent of Terra Australis did not exist.

When he returned to England, Cook was gifted with an honorary retirement from the Royal Navy, but this was not his last trip on the oceans!

Third Voyage (1776-1779)

Cook took to the seas again in search of the Northwest Passage. This supposed shortcut through the Arctic Ocean could connect Europe, Asia, and America. If it were found, it would be easier and faster to travel between the three continents, improving trade.

Cook explored the northern Pacific, mapped extensive parts of America (including the coast of California), and became the first European to visit the Hawaiian islands. As a result, he named the Sandwich Islands after the 4th Earl of Sandwich.

This was Cook’s last voyage – when he landed on Kealakekua Bay on February 14th, 1779, a confrontation with Hawaii Indigenous peoples resulted in his death.

Fun facts about Captain Cook for Children

• Cook’s most famous ships were named Endeavor, Resolution, and Discovery.
• In 1762, he married Elizabeth Batts and had six children.
• He was born in Yorkshire, England.
• The Royal Society awarded him the Copley Medal in 1776.
• A goat came along on Cook’s first voyage – this goat is believed to be the first recorded instance of an animal circumnavigating the world!
• Many cities, towns, counties, and other features in Australia and New Zealand are named after him because of his discoveries there.
• One of the craters on the moon is called the Cook Crater, named after Cook.
• The sharp coral in the Great Barrier Reef nearly sunk the HMS Endeavor. It took Cook and his crew two months to fully repair it.
• Cook narrowly missed discovering Antarctica!

Who was Florence Nightingale?

Florence Nightingale – also known as the ‘Lady with the Lamp’ – was the founder of modern nursing. She was also a statistician and social reformer who helped care for soldiers during the Crimean War. After the war, she set up the Nightingale School of Nursing, which aimed to formalize the education of nurses.

Top  Florence Nightingale Facts for Kids

• Florence Nightingale was born to an affluent family on the 12th of May 1820
• She was named Florence after her birthplace: Florence, Italy.
• She lived in Derbyshire and Hampshire, and she died in 1910.
• She met Queen Victoria in 1833 when she was awarded the Royal Red Cross medal.
• She was the first-ever woman to be accepted into the Royal Statistical Society.
• Every year on the 12th of May, nurses celebrate International Nurses Day. This is held on Florence Nightingale’s birthday!
• She opened a nursing school and wrote a book called Notes for Nursing.
• King Edward VII gave Florence a special award called the Order of Merit in 1907. She was the first woman to receive this award and changed how women were seen in the workplace.

Why is Florence Nightingale so famous?

Florence Nightingale altered the way that hospitals cared for their patients. Before, hospitals were overcrowded and dirty places with rats. This meant that germs and diseases were easily spread. In addition, there weren’t enough doctors or beds to go around, so often people didn’t get the care they needed.

How did Florence Nightingale change the way women were thought of in society?

At the time Florence was born, girls were not typically well educated. However, her father thought it was important that all girls had a good education and taught her subjects like mathematics, science, and history.

Women at this time were often expected to marry and take care of the domestic duties at home. However, Florence Nightingale was different because she became highly educated and chose a career outside the home.

Presidents Day, also known as Washington’s Birthday, is a federal holiday in the U.S.

The official meaning of the holiday is to celebrate the life and achievements of the first President of the United States, George Washington. However, it has since expanded to honor Abraham Lincoln or, in some cases, all the presidents who have held office.

When is Presidents Day?

Presidents Day takes place on the third Monday in February. That means the actual date changes every year.

What can you learn about Presidents Day here?

• What’s the difference between Presidents Day and Washington’s Birthday?
• How is Presidents Day celebrated across the nation?
• Which states don’t celebrate Presidents Day at all?
• What are some useful teaching resources on the holiday to use with your class?

Presidents Day or Washington’s Birthday

Is Presidents Day the same as Washington’s Birthday?

The matter of Washington’s real birthday is a complicated one. When Washington was alive, an entirely different calendar was used: the Julian calendar. He was born on February 11, 1731, according to this calendar.

When Britain and its colonies adopted the Gregorian calendar, his birthday was moved a whole year (and a few days) to February 22, 1732.

So, which one is Washington’s actual birthday? Both!

However, the confusion doesn’t end there.

Presidents Day is not Washington’s real birthday because there isn’t a date for a holiday.

It takes place on the third Monday in February every year due to the Uniform Monday Holiday Act. This permanently moved Washington’s Birthday, Memorial Day, and Labor Day to a Monday, giving people across the United States a well-deserved long weekend.

What president is Presidents Day for?

You would think that, given the original name of Washington’s Birthday, this holiday would involve celebrating the life of George Washington. And you’d be at least half-right! But instead, many people (and many states) view this as an official holiday to commemorate Washington’s achievements.

But – and there’s always a “but” – Washington isn’t the only president celebrated on Presidents Day. Some people across the nation use it to honor all presidents.

Some states have even included another president or significant figure in the event’s name. For example:

• Alabama recognizes George Washington/Thomas Jefferson’s Birthday.
• Arkansas celebrates George Washington’s Birthday and Daisy Gatson Bates Day.
• Utah’s take on holiday is Washington and Lincoln Day.

Abraham Lincoln is a popular figure to include in Presidents Day celebrations. This is likely because his birthday is also in February!

Celebrating Presidents Day

What is Presidents Day celebrated for?

By celebrating Presidents Day or Washington’s Birthday, we are not just celebrating the life of George Washington but the foundations of the United States as we know it today.

It is linked to the American Revolution, in which Washington led an army as Commander in Chief to win America’s independence. We can also celebrate the Founding Fathers and the systems they put in place for the United States. The U.S. Constitution and all of its protections came about through the actions of George Washington and his colleagues.

And that’s just the start! If you view Presidents Day as an opportunity to celebrate all presidents, then the sky’s the limit. Forty-five people have served as President of the United States. That’s surely something to celebrate.

How can you celebrate Presidents Day?

Stuck for ideas of what to do on Presidents Day? Here are a few suggestions on what activities you can try out to mark the occasion:

• Create a Presidents Day pop quiz for children. How much do they remember about the life of George Washington?
• Set a research assignment on the life of someone who has been the President of the United States. Kids can get tons of practice using books and online resources.
• Host a class election to elect a classroom president for the day.
• Write a persuasive letter to the President about an issue close to your heart. This would be a fantastic group task!
• Learn about the presidential pets who have lived at the White House for years. Students can stick to classic cats and dogs like Socks and Buddy, or they can go wild and learn about Lincoln’s pair of goats, Nanny, and Nanko.

Which states do not celebrate Presidents Day?

There are some states which celebrate Presidents Day under a different name. For example, it might be called George Washington’s Day or George Washington’s Birthday.

Illinois, Maine, and South Carolina recognize Washington’s Birthday and Presidents Day as names for the holiday that takes place on the third Monday in February.

Others have their events on an entirely different day of the year.

The following states do not celebrate Presidents Day at all:

• Delaware
• Florida
• Iowa
• Kansas
• Louisiana
• North Carolina
• Rhode Island
• Wisconsin

10 Fun Facts about Presidents Day

1. The holiday is still officially called Washington’s Birthday by the federal government. That might contribute to the confusion over what to call it!
2. Presidents Day (or President’s Day) in New Mexico is observed the day after Thanksgiving.
3. Abraham Lincoln was also born in February. On February 12, Lincoln’s Birthday is a public holiday in some (but not all) states.
4. Some people celebrated George Washington’s birthday in the 1700s while he was still alive. That’s how influential he was.
5. There are multiple spellings of Presidents Day. For example, “President’s Day” could refer to the celebration of one president, while “Presidents’ Day” could refer to Washington and Lincoln. It’s all in the apostrophes!
6. Other than Washington and Lincoln, two more presidents were born in February: William Harrison and Ronald Reagan.
7. George Washington was the only president who the Electoral College unanimously elected.
8. Washington’s Birthday was first celebrated as a federal holiday in the 1880s.
9. When there was a proposal to change the name to Presidents Day (or Presidents’ Day), recognizing Abraham Lincoln as part of the celebrations, Congress rejected it.
10. The popularity of the term Presidents Day picked up speed starting in the 1970s and 1980s. Stores and retailers would promote sales on the day to sell off old stock.

Bird Classification: What are birds?

Birds are warm-blooded vertebrates that evolved from dinosaurs. They’re identifiable by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, and laying of hard-shelled eggs. They also have a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and strong but light skeletons.

Birds have wings that are more or less developed between species. The only known species of wingless birds are moa and elephant birds – both of which are now extinct. While wings allow most birds to fly, species like ratites and penguins cannot travel in the air.

Birds like crows and parrots are intelligent, and several species can make and use tools. In addition, they’re social – migrating great distances together- and communicate with signals, calls, and songs. Some birds also cooperate when breeding and hunting, while mobbing predators as a group is common too.

How many species of birds are there?

Around 10,000 living species of birds make up a worldwide population of about 100 billion!

Bird habitat information

A bird’s habitat can vary between species, and birds occupy many different environments worldwide. They’re found in deserts, forests, mountains, tundras, grasslands, oceans, urban areas, and more. Some birds never leave their habitat, while others migrate incredible distances when the weather changes.

Tropical regions exhibit an impressive diversity of species, and birds have adapted to life in and around the world’s oceans. For example, penguins have been recorded diving down to 300 meters, and some seabirds only come onshore to breed.

What does a bird habitat require?

• Food, such as berries, worms, and small insects.
• Camouflage so that they are less visible to predators.
• Materials for nest-building, such as twigs and leaves.
• Water to drink and bathe in.
• Shelter from the elements.
• Nesting sites like hollow trees or snags.

Bird habitats for different species:

• Shore and sea birds inhabit beaches, estuaries, and other coastal habitats. These birds tend to be able to dive or sift for food with beaks adapted to the task. Examples include auks and fulmars.

• Forest birds are found in tropical regions and temperate and cold climates. Examples include parrots, owls, and pheasants.

• Wetland birds inhabit rivers and lakes and include species like ducks, geese, and herons.

• Birds of the plains live in grassland and even desert environments of different temperatures. Examples include rheas, seriema, and parakeets.

• Urban birds live in cities and towns and can be found under bridges and on buildings, among other places. Birds that live in these environments include pigeons, sparrows, and starlings.

Habitats for garden birds

Garden birds include robins, collared doves, blackbirds, and house sparrows. Good bird habitats in the garden feature:

• Trees provide shelter, nesting sites, and a variety of insects and fruits to eat.

• Shrubs also provide shelter and nesting sites, while the berries they produce are a great food source for birds.

• Lawns are a feeding ground for lots of birds.

• Climbers, which provide cover, nesting sites, and food.

• Hedges, which are ideal nesting sites.

How does habitat loss affect birds?

Lots of species of birds are threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation. Harmful activities include:

• Agricultural use, such as clearing habitats for fields.
• Logging and forest harvesting.
• Expanding urban areas for housing or industry.
• Building dams, canals, or other structures that interfere with waterways.
• Infrastructure that fractures habitats, like roads or electrical lines.

These activities are detrimental to the birds’ chances of survival and impact the population. These human changes can have drastic consequences, causing the numbers of a species to plummet.

Quick-fire Questions!

What is the circulatory system of birds like?

The four-chambered heart means that birds’ systemic and pulmonary circulation are separate. This means arterial and venous blood don’t mix, making them warm-blooded. As a result, their average body temperature is between 41 and 42 °C.

What country has the most species of birds?

Colombia has more birds than any other country, with around 2000 species.

How do birds breathe?

Birds have air sacs and lungs to compensate for the amount of oxygen in flying. Air passes through the lungs in one direction to ensure maximum blood oxygenation.

What senses do birds use most?

Birds’ organs of senses aren’t developed evenly. For example, they have great vision and depend upon this more than any other sense. They also have good hearing, but their senses of taste and smell are poor.

Are birds warm-blooded?

Much like mammals, birds are warm-blooded. This is a pretty common fact, but what does it mean? Because birds are warm-blooded, they can generate their body heat instead of relying on the weather to warm them up. Cold-blooded animals, like reptiles, do not have this ability. The ability to regulate their body temperature means that birds can survive in extremely cold environments. This is why birds like the yellow lion, peregrine falcon, and snow goose can live in the arctic tundra. One of the best examples of birds withstanding freezing temperatures can be seen in Emperor penguins. During the arctic winter, these penguins can sit in temperatures as low as -50ºC.

How do birds’ legs and feet not get cold?

Most of a bird’s body is covered in thick feathers, which help keep them warm. The legs and feet, however, are left uncovered, leaving us to question whether or not they get cold. Birds have adapted over time to overcome this issue through their circulation system. The arteries within birds that carry warm blood from their heart travel alongside the veins carrying cold blood from the legs, heating them. This system also works in hotter weather to help birds cool down. The warm blood flow to the legs increases in hot temperatures, allowing birds to lose any unwanted heat and stay cool.

Do feathers keep birds warm?

Birds are warm-blooded animals and have many different systems in place to keep them warm. These systems have been adapted to help birds survive in cold, challenging environments. For instance, the feathers on a bird’s body can fluff out to trap warm air. These feathers also provide a place for birds to tuck their heads when cold. Birds also have a layer of fat that builds up under their skin as cold weather approaches, which helps keep them warm.

Why do birds migrate?

One of the main reasons why birds migrate to different places is to source better weather conditions. Millions of birds migrate every single year from cold environments to warmer ones. Migration allows birds to find the best place to breed during the summer and the best place to feed during winter.

Bird Classification: Taxonomic Hierarchy

There are estimated to be around 8.7 million species on earth, which are greatly varied. To better understand the vast species of animals, we categorize them into different groups known as taxa. The taxonomic hierarchy is the process through which taxonomic groups and categories are organized into successive levels.

The taxonomic hierarchy is as follows:

1. Kingdom: Animalia
2. Phylum: Chordata
3. Subphylum: Vertebrata
4. Class: Aves

The hierarchy following from the class Aves is categorized like this: the orders are split up into families, the families are split up into genera (singular: genus), and the genera are made up of distinct species.

Order

There are around 29 orders of birds. However, this statistic is under review as more research is done in bird biology. For instance, the order of birds called Struthioniformes used to include the Ostrich, the Rheas, Cassowaries, Emus, and Kiwis. However, this has recently been revised, and now Struthioniformes only consists of the Ostrich, the Rheas are in the order Rheiformes, the Cassowaries and Emus are in the order Casuariformes, and the Kiwis are in the order Dinornithiformes.

The driving force behind these changes in the classification of birds is new research that has been done using DNA analysis. This research is more effective at determining how closely two species are related than the previous methods, which focused on the morphology and anatomy of the birds.

Family

The 29 orders of birds are divided into 233 families. As the number of orders of birds, the number of families is ever-changing as more and more research is being carried out. For instance, the family Laridae used to include all species of Gulls, Terns, Skuas, Jaegers, and Skimmers. However, this family has recently been split into four different families: Gulls are Laridae, Terns are Sternidae, Skuas and Jaegers are Stercorariidae, and Skimmers are Rynchopidae.

Genus

The genus is the primary taxonomic division between the family group and individual species.

Species

All other categories in the taxonomic hierarchy are based on species groupings, making it a very important level in this system. A species comprises related organisms with common characteristics and can breed with other similar organisms. Currently, there are around 9700 to 9800 separate species of birds on earth. However, as with all the categories in this hierarchy, this number changes as scientists find new species, etc.

Bird Classification: Characteristics

Birds are fascinating creatures, which is clear from the number of people that spend their time bird-watching. There are around 10,000 species of birds today, all with different features and characteristics, but there are certain similarities that all birds share.

All birds are classified as members of the Kingdom Animalia, Phylum Chordata, and Class Aves.

The characteristics that all birds share are:

• Vertebrates: All birds have a backbone, making them an animal of the Phylum Chordata. However, the vertebrates in birds are very different from those found in other animals; for example, birds have a unique, light skeletal structure filled with hollows, gaps, and air sacs. This is so birds can be lightweight and, thus, able to fly more efficiently.
• Feathers: All birds have feathers, which are made up of a range of proteins, including keratin, as well as light-reflecting pigments which act as body insulation. Types of feathers vary greatly between different types of birds. For instance, some feathers are purely decorative, like plumes and streamers, while others are designed to help birds control their flight or for insulation.
• Wings: One thing that all birds have in common, of course, is wings. Even birds that cannot fly have adapted wings or flippers they use for things like swimming, displays of confrontation, and courtship dances. In addition, the size and shape of birds’ wings vary depending on how they fly. Therefore, wing markings are a really useful way to identify species of birds.
• Bill: Bills are bony, keratin-covered projections that form the mouths of all birds. While all birds have them, bills are constantly evolving for different bird species as they are used for many things. For example, birds use their bills for eating, carrying items, drumming, drilling, preening, regulating body temperature, attacking opponents, and much more.
• Warm-blooded: Birds are endothermic creatures that can generate their internal body heat. This allows them not to rely on their environment to maintain their body temperature. However, a lot of birds still sit in the sun frequently, but this has many purposes, as well as body temperature maintenance.
• High metabolism: All birds have a very high metabolism, allowing them to turn food into energy quickly. They also have a four-chambered heart and increased respiratory rate, enabling them to be efficient fliers and helping them maintain their high body temperatures.
• Bipedal: All birds are bipedal, which means they have two legs that they use for walking, hopping, perching, and running. Different birds have developed different leg shapes and sizes over time to fit their specific needs. For instance, flamingoes have long, thin legs that can wade through deep water.
• Furcula: A furcula is a wishbone that all birds have, and it is designed to protect their chest cavity during wing beats. The furcula guards the organs in a bird’s chest from the extreme pressure that builds up as its wings move and change altitudes.
• Laying Eggs: As part of their reproductive cycle, all birds lay amniotic eggs. Bird eggs have a hard shell that needs to be incubated to develop before they hatch. The size, shape, and markings of bird eggs vary between species. The number of eggs laid is also different for each bird species and how they need to be incubated.
• Communication: Birds are fantastic communicators. A lot of species of birds can communicate verbally with one another through songs and calls. They can also share non-verbally. Birds share for many reasons, notably as part of their courtship process, confrontations, and parenting.
• Navigation: Excellent navigational skills are a key characteristic for all birds, both those who migrate and those who don’t. These navigational skills enable migratory birds to travel extremely long distances through many different climates and conditions and arrive at the same places every year. Non-migratory birds, on the other hand, use their navigational skills to repeatedly source the same spots for food and nest.

A paragraph is a section of writing which consists of one or more sentences grouped that deal with one subject or element of the writing as a whole.

Paragraphs structure a piece of text and make it easier to read, rather than a large text with no spacing.

How are paragraphs used?

New paragraphs are started by leaving a space and going to the next line or by making an indent (text starts partway into the line).

Fiction texts often use paragraphs to show the progression of time or if the point of view has switched to another character.

Primary school texts will typically use a five-paragraph sentence structure.

• The first paragraph is the introduction.
• The second, third, and fourth paragraphs provide points and information on a topic.
• The fifth paragraph is the conclusion.

In a non-fiction text, we typically see a subheading before each paragraph, telling us what it will be about.

When to start a new paragraph?

When writing, a new paragraph should be started to show that the focus of the previous section has changed. This could be because the topic, person, place, time, or idea has changed.

For children, knowing when to start a new paragraph can be a complex idea and tricky to learn. There are rules, and then there are interpretations and exceptions. To keep things simple, we have collected a few guidelines to help you and your students understand when to start a new paragraph.

When you start a new topic: For most forms of writing, it is important to remember when you should split each subject and idea into a separate paragraph. You don’t want run-on sentences (sentences that clump together two different thoughts), so you don’t want run-on paragraphs either. For example, if you are writing a newspaper article, use the first paragraph to provide an overview of information and the next paragraph to look more deeply at a single idea.

When you change time or location: When writing fiction or creative writing with multiple times or locations, you should start a new paragraph whenever you skip forward or backward in time or move from one place to another. For example, if you are writing a story about a haunted house, your first paragraph might start outside, and the next paragraph might move into the house.

When a new character begins to speak: This rule is fairly straightforward. Each time a new character begins to communicate in writing or a story, you should start a new paragraph. There should also be only one speaker per paragraph.

How to start a paragraph?

It can be a bit tricky figuring out how to start a paragraph, but with these helpful tips, you should be able to get going with your writing without a problem.

Using transition words

Because when you’re starting a new paragraph, you’re typically switching to a new idea, using transition words can be useful to indicate this change. Before you find the right words to start a new paragraph, you have to decide what your section is about. To do this, there are a few questions that you can ask yourself about the connection between the last paragraph and the new one:

• What does the last sentence of the previous paragraph say?
• How does the previous sentence relate to the first one in the new paragraph?

After you’ve answered these, there are a few more questions to tackle about the content of your upcoming paragraph. These questions will help you find the right transition words to start a new paragraph:

• Does this new paragraph offer additional information?
• Does the opening sentence of the new paragraph offer a point of contrast?
• Is your writing sequential? I.e., does the new paragraph detail the next step in order of events?
• Does the new paragraph offer additional evidence?
• Does the new paragraph reiterate or emphasize an idea?
• Does the new paragraph begin your conclusion?

Once you have answered all the questions, you’re ready to find the right transition words to start a new paragraph!

If you’re introducing a new idea to provide contrast, you could use words and phrases like:

• However
• Conversely
• Still
• Nevertheless
• Yet
• On the other hand
• In comparison
• On the contrary
• Although
• In contrast
• Even though
• Different from
• Whereas

If you’re wondering how to start a paragraph where you’re adding or building on an idea, you could use words and phrases like:

• Additionally
• For example
• Again
• Also
• Moreover
• In addition
• Likewise
• Furthermore
• Similarly
• As well as
• In fact
• Whereas
• Another reason

And if you want to introduce a new paragraph to illustrate the cause, you could use words like:

• Accordingly
• Particularly
• As a result
• Otherwise
• Typically
• Because
• Consequently
• For the most part
• Due to
• In this situation
• For this reason
• Undoubtedly or no doubt
• For this purpose

If you are writing in sequence, here are some excellent words to start a new paragraph:

• First
• Second
• Third
• To begin with
• In the first place
• Initially
• First of all
• At first
• Subsequently
• Previously
• Eventually
• Next
• Afterward
• Then

Alternatively, if your new paragraph is the beginning of your conclusion, you could use words like:

• To conclude
• As a final point
• At last
• Last but not least
• Finally
• Lastly
• To return to my main argument
• It is clear that
• To resume
• As previously stated
• In summary
• As I have argued
• Overall
• To summarize
• Given these points
• In conclusion
• In sum
• In short

It’s important to avoid reusing the same transition words repeatedly, so make sure to vary the terms you choose. For example, opening each paragraph with the word “however” throughout an essay can sound repetitive and make it harder for the reader to follow your writing. So, take the time to think about which transition word best suits your paragraph and which conveys the idea you’re trying to get across most effectively.

Topic Sentences

Using transition words isn’t the only way to start a paragraph. For example, starting each paragraph with a topic sentence can effectively structure your writing when you’re writing an essay. The topic sentence should communicate to the reader the ideas and point you will be making in that paragraph. This helps the reader take in the ideas and information you’re expressing and helps you keep your paragraphs focused and to the point.

Have a plan!

Another useful method to help you figure out how to start a paragraph is by creating a plan for your writing before you start. Whether you’re writing a short story or an essay, having a thorough plan and a good idea of what you want to say and how you want to say is a fantastic way to structure your writing. In addition, having the goal to refer back to can stop you from losing track of what you want to write and help you better understand how each paragraph fits within your writing.

Starting with a quotation

You can also try starting paragraphs with a quotation relevant to the topic you’ll explore in the paragraph’s body. For example, you can create a strong paragraph opening by using a strong quote that supports the argument you’re trying to make or a famous quote that links well with the themes you’ll be exploring.

Using statistics

Similarly, if, through your research, you’ve found any interesting statistics relevant to your argument, you can use these as a way to start a paragraph. Think of how newspaper headlines often use shocking statistics to grab readers’ attention. You can use a similar technique to keep your reader engaged as you progress from one paragraph to the next.

Using questions

Using a thought-provoking question to begin your paragraph is another handy technique. You can then keep your writing focused and to the point as you go on to provide an answer to the question in the main body of your paragraph.

What does a good paragraph look like?

It is often helpful to see an explanation in practice. For paragraph writing, this gives the reader a chance to see P.E.E., transition words, topic changes, and concise writing in practice.

Transactional writing is a term that encompasses lots of different kinds of non-fiction genres in writing. Transactional writing is written with an aim – that aim is typically to communicate information and ideas to a person through the text. The purpose of this information will fall into one of four main categories:

• To persuade- Persuasive text is often used in advertising to convince someone to buy a product or service. A transactional text aimed at persuading will typically set out to tell a person why the product or service is so good and how it can improve their lives. They might include customer testimonials or pushy language, such as limited-time-only offers to make people take the plunge and purchase. Persuasive, transactional writing may also set out to sway a person’s opinion on a particular issue – it’s often used in politics to try and persuade people to vote a certain way.
• To argue- transactional texts that discuss to get the point across often take the form of a review or political flyer. For example, a reviewer might push a point they made about a book or film and try to persuade you that their point of view is legitimate by arguing their point with evidence. The language of argument may also be used in literature and posters for or against political views or policies. Argumentative language can also be found in speeches, such as debates.
• To inform- Informative transactional texts give you the facts about something. This could be to entertain or educate someone. Examples of informational texts include leaflets about services and products, newspapers, and magazine articles. Informative, transactional writing also includes letters and emails that you might send to friends, updating them about what you’ve been up to or letting them know important information. An invitation to a birthday party is an informational text – it gives you all the information required to attend the event. Things like giving directions or writing about someone’s life are informative – providing the reader the facts to work from.
• To advise- Advisory transactional texts give the reader the knowledge they need to decide on something. Advisory texts offer different options and are typically more balanced than persuasive texts. However, they take a lot of research to give the reader all the information they need to decide on something themselves. An example might be writing a magazine article on the best ways to travel to and from school – you could give the pros and cons of a few different methods and provide an opinion as to which you think is the best. Still, ultimately, it’s up to the reader to decide.

How are pieces of transactional writing presented?

Pieces of transactional writing can be presented in a variety of ways. They could be a written letter, email, speech, or leaflet. You can find transactional texts in newspapers and magazines. It could also take the form of a review, for example, a book or film review.

Pieces of transactional writing will follow conventions of language and structure to fulfill their purpose.

Examples of transactional writing that children might be asked to write about include:

• Friendly and official letters;
• Diary/journal entry;
• Invitation;
• Procedures (instructions and rules);
• Advertisement posters and notices.

Curriculum vitae is Latin for ‘course of life and is a complete record of a person’s career, training, education, and qualifications.

A curriculum vitae, commonly shortened to a CV, enables you to state your skills to potential employers. Employers use it to help determine a shortlist of candidates for a vacant position. Therefore, a CV should contain all the relevant information that an employer wants. Typically, CVs are 1-2 pages long.

What should I include in a CV?

A CV typically contains the following:

• Contact details – name, address, email, telephone number
• List of skills or a personal statement – lets the employer know a little more about you and what you could bring to the job
• Employment history – include some achievements that may be relevant to the job you are applying for
• Education History
• Additional training/qualifications – any training courses you have attended or completed
• References – you don’t have to include the details of your references in your CV; you can say that these are ‘available upon request.’

It would help if you also accounted for any gaps in your employment or education history; for example, you may have been traveling or not working for some time. You could also include the following:

• Hobbies/interests – to help show employers some of the things you are passionate about

Here are some things to remember

Do:

• Use a professional font
• Use section headings to make your CV clear and easy to read
• List most recent job roles/achievements first and work backward chronologically (include dates to make this clear)
• Keep it concise
• Use bullet points as they are easy to read

What is a cover letter?

When applying for a job, some employers ask you to send a cover letter with your CV. This formal document explains what job role you are using for, why you are applying, and why you think you would be a good fit.

The Palaeolithic Age, also known as the ‘Old Stone Age, refers to the period from the first known use of stone tools by hominins to the end of the last Ice Age. This period stretches from around 3.3 million years ago to 11,650 years ago. Early humans, i.e., hominins, were hard at work creating many things during this period.

Palaeolithic Age Inventions

In today’s age of smartphones, self-driving cars, and space travel, the Palaeolithic Age inventions can seem a bit basic. However, their creations are impressive, considering how long ago they were around. What’s more, the amazing inventions and innovations we enjoy today would not have been possible without the simpler inventions that came before. For instance, the people in the Palaeolithic Age were the first to invent stone tools. It was these tools that set humans apart from other animals on earth. Let’s take a look at some of the most fascinating and important Palaeolithic Age inventions:

• Stone Tools (c. 2,600,000 B.C.E)

As mentioned in the introduction, the invention of Stone Tools is one of the most important Palaeolithic Age inventions. It is also widely regarded as the first-ever human invention. Stone tools consisted of sharp flints, which were sourced and used naturally. Some of these stone tools were found in Kenya in 1969, with experts estimating that they are around 2.6 million years old. Therefore, these ancient tools would have been present in the Lower Palaeolithic era.

People in the Palaeolithic era would have used stone tools for many things, including hacking, pounding, and cutting during hunting. After some time, stone tools were developed, and thinner, sharper tools were made, which proved much better at cutting up prey. These intelligent tools could also be used to make clothing from animal hides and as spearheads for hunting.

• Controlled Fire (c. 1,420,000 B.C.E)

The controlled fire was also one of the most important Palaeolithic Age inventions as, without it, humans would have struggled to stay warm or cook food. Of course, fire existed before the Palaeolithic Age, but the ability to harness and control it made it a useful tool for human beings.

During the Palaeolithic era, a fire was constantly lit, as it was very difficult to reignite them. To light a fire, Flintstones would have been hit against pyrites, or other friction methods would have been used. Another reason that controlled fire was such an important invention was that it enabled humans to live in places that had previously been too cold to survive. The ability to control fire also opened up possibilities for further innovation, like smelting metals, enabling humans to progress further in the future.

• Built Shelter (c. 4,000,000 B.C.E.)

Humans have not always known how to build their shelters, so they used to use the natural environment. Covers in the natural environment would include things like trees, offering minimal protection from harsh weather conditions, but were excellent at hiding from animals. Natural shelters would also have included caves, which, on the flip side, offered great protection from harsh weather but left humans open to attacks from wild animals.

The earliest evidence of a shelter built by humans can be traced back to the Palaeolithic Age. However, it is a subject that is often contested by archaeologists, as some argue that the shelter could have come around through natural processes. Regardless of when the first shelter was built, the ability to do so enabled humans to set up dwellings closer to necessary resources. Humans could finally live close to food and water while still being protected from the natural world.

• Raft (c. 840,000 — c. 800,000 B.C.E)

In the Lower Palaeolithic era, it is believed that human beings invented a very early form of a raft. They used these rafts to travel across large bodies of water, allowing them to reach other previously unavailable lands. This is a highly contested theory, however, amongst anthropologists. Despite its controversy, evidence from sites around the Mediterranean Sea suggests that humans in both the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic periods used rafts. It is thought that they used these rafts to travel to other lands and colonize them.

• Sewing (c. 25,000 B.C.E)

The earliest form of sewing tools can be traced back to southwest France and near Moscow in Russia. These sewing tools were made of ivory or bone, with a small eyelet carved out.

Sewing is one of the most important Palaeolithic Age inventions, as it enabled humans to craft clothing that fitted their bodies. This clothing looked better and was much more effective at providing insulation and comfort than the previous clothing. Before the invention of sewing, humans would have worn a dress made of animal hides, fur, and leaves.

Interestingly, it has been found that needles weren’t only used to sew clothing. It is believed that needles were also used to sew textiles, which were used for display and decorative purposes.

• Bow And Arrow (c. 20,000 B.C.E)

Cave paintings found in Western Europe and North Africa show evidence of the use of bows and arrows, dating back to the Palaeolithic Age. However, the oldest evidence of arrows comes from Sibudu Cave in South Africa. This dates way back to long before the Eurasian Upper Palaeolithic era.

The bow and arrow was an extremely important invention for many reasons. First, it improved accuracy and efficiency in hunting, as humans could kill outside their throwing range. Early bows were made from a thin, flexible piece of wood, and the arrowheads were made from flints or other stones.

• Braided rope (c. 17,000 B.C.E)

This invention can be traced back to 17,000 BCE. The braided rope is a helpful invention that is still used in our day-to-day lives. The earliest evidence of synthetic rope was found in various caves in Lascaux in southwest France.

Humans made these braided ropes by combining fibers or strands to make a stronger structure. It is thought that the Ancient Egyptians were the first civilization to create tools to aid in the production of rope. They then used these ropes to move massive stones needed to build the colossal Egyptian structures and monuments they were famous for.

• Lunar Calendar (c. 15,000 B.C.E)

Seventh on the list of Palaeolithic Age inventions is the Lunar Calendar. Nowadays, we keep track of our time using ​​the Gregorian calendar, based on the earth’s rotation around the sun. However, back in the Palaeolithic era, they tracked time using the moon’s cycles. The Lunar Calendar is based on the processes of the Moon’s phases, which happen monthly. The Gregorian calendar would not have been a possible creation without the invention of the Lunar Calendar.

Much like the braided rope, the earliest evidence of a Lunar Calendar was found in the caves in Lascaux, southwest France.

• Alcoholic Drinks (c. 10,000 B.C.E)

This invention came about by accident. Early humans accidentally created a fermented mixture of water and fruit in sunlight, which is believed to have led to the discovery of the first alcoholic drink. From this point, we can see evidence of the intentional creation of alcoholic beverages in the form of Stone Age beer jugs. For this reason, beer is believed to have been the first alcoholic drink.

• Oil Lamp (c. 10,000 B.C.E)

The oil lamp was a super important invention, allowing humans to take the light with them as they traveled. In addition, this portable lighting was used to aid visibility and for decorative purposes.

Early lamps were made from stone or seashell crucibles filled with animal fat. The wick of the lights was made from a piece of vegetation. The first identifiable oil lamp was found in a place with settled agriculture, tracing back to the Upper Palaeolithic period. The reason behind the correlation between lamps and farming is that planting the first crops allowed plant oils to be used in the early oil lamps.

• Sling (c. 10,000 B.C.E)

It is important to note that the sling invented in the Palaeolithic era is used in battle, not to support wounded limbs. This sling is an ancient weapon, the oldest evidence found in Tutankhamun’s tomb. There is also plenty of evidence of the sling in the Bible, most famously in the battle between David and Goliath.

The sling was a weapon used to propel blunt objects, like stones, or lead at opponents across a battlefield. It was an extremely successful weapon at the time because it was cheap, easy to make, extremely portable, and required easy-to-find ammunition.

Life in the Palaeolithic Age

We learn about life in the Palaeolithic Age through different archaeological and ethnographic (the scientific description of peoples and cultures with their customs, habits, and mutual differences) discoveries. Based on the evidence we found, we know that, in the Palaeolithic Age, society was based around a hunter-gatherer economy, meaning that these were the two main roles people held. The hunters in society would have hunted wild animals, such as deer, hares, rhinos, and mammoths. But on the other hand, the gatherers in the community would have gathered other food, firewood, and materials for tools, clothes, and shelter.

The population density in the Palaeolithic Age was incredibly low, especially compared to modern populations. On average, there were only around 0.4 inhabitants per square kilometer. The reason for this low population density was likely due to several different factors, including:

• People generally had lower body fat.
• Infanticide was widely practiced. This is the killing of a newborn baby, which was often used as a primitive method of birth control, amongst other reasons.
• People took part in regular, intense endurance exercises, which took a toll on their bodies.
• People followed a nomadic lifestyle, meaning they moved around all the time.

Something that isn’t frequently discussed regarding Palaeolithic people is their free time. Much like we do today, Palaeolithic people had a ton of free time to do things they enjoyed outside their roles as hunter-gatherers. Interestingly, Palaeolithic people would have had much more free time than Neolithic farming societies and modern industrial societies.

Distribution of Humans in the Palaeolithic Age

At the beginning of the Palaeolithic Age, early humans were located primarily in Africa, just east of the Great Rift Valley. We know this because the majority of the human fossils that we have found that date back to more than one million years ago are found in this area of Africa, particularly in Kenya, Tanzania, and Ethiopia.

By around 2,000,000 – 1,500,000 B.P. (Before the Present), certain groups of humans, hominins at the time, started to leave Africa and settle in Southern Europe and Asia instead. Southern Caucasus, a geographical region on the border of Eastern Europe and Western Asia, was occupied by humans by the year 1,700,000 B.P. Similarly, Northern China was occupied by around 1,660,000 B.P.

By the end of the Lower Palaeolithic era, many humans lived in modern-day China and Western Indonesia. They were also settling in Europe, around the Mediterranean, and had even moved as far north as England, France, Southern Germany, and Bulgaria. This northern movement of early humans is believed to have been limited by their lack of control over fire, which they would have needed in those colder climates. (See the previous section on controlled fire for more information on this subject) Cave settlements in Europe have been studied in-depth, and the findings indicate that there was no regular use of fire before the years 400,000 – c. 300,000 B.P.

There is no evidence of early humans in America, Australia, or Oceania during this period.

Homo erectus and Neanderthals, both of which were different forms of early humans, became completely extinct by the end of the Palaeolithic Age. Homo sapiens, descended from Homo sapiens, began to appear in Eastern Africa around 200,000 B.P. They then left Africa many years later, around 50,000 B.P., and, from that point, began to spread all over the planet. Numerous different groups of early humans existed in the world at the same time. For instance, around 30,000 B.P., while Homo sapiens traveled the globe, Neanderthals still lived in certain areas of Eurasia.

For the entire Palaeolithic Age, the population density remained super low, particularly outside the equatorial region (regions located around the equator). For instance, the population of Europe between the years 16,000 and 11,000 B.P. is believed to have been around 30,000 people. This small number seems big compared to the population in previous years, between 40,000 and 16,000 B.P., which sat around 4,000–6,000 people.

Fun Fact: In the Altai Mountains and Indonesia, hominin fossils have been found that don’t belong to either Neanderthals or Homo sapiens.

What are monkeys?

Monkeys are small or medium-sized primates that typically have long tails. There are more than 260 types of monkeys all over the globe, in different sizes, shapes, and colors. These mammals are intelligent and have opposable thumbs, which makes them similar to humans.

There are two major categories of monkeys: New World and Old World. New World monkeys live in different parts of the Americas, with tails that can grasp and hold things and round nostrils set far apart. Old World monkeys live in Asia and Africa and don’t have tails that can get and hold onto things, plus their nostrils are smaller and close to each other. Old World monkeys also have special pockets in their cheeks to deposit food.

Top 10 Monkeys Facts for Kids:

• Most monkeys live their lives in trees, but there are some exceptions, like the baboon. Baboons prefer the ground!
• All monkeys have tails, but some have tiny ones that look like small lumps.
• They eat different foods, but the most common are seeds, flowers, fruits, leaves, eggs, and small insects.
• The smallest type of monkey is the Pygmy Marmoset. An adult only weighs up to 140 grams.
• The largest type of monkey on the planet is the Mandrill. An adult male can weigh up to 35 kilograms!
• Monkeys are active during the day, except for Owl monkeys, which awake at night.
• They use noises, movements, and facial expressions to communicate.
• Monkeys become adults after 3-4 years of life. They spend the first years with their parents.
• Apes are typically counted as monkeys, but they are not.
• Monkeys are called a ‘tribe,’ a ‘troop,’ or a ‘mission.’

Monkeys Quiz for Kids 

Put your knowledge of monkeys to the test with these fun quiz questions; the answers are written below but don’t peek until you’ve finished!

1. What is the largest species of monkey?
2. Where do monkeys like to live?
3. True or false? Apes are monkeys.
4. Do all monkeys have tails?
5. True or False? Monkeys sometimes eat insects

Answers 

1. What is the largest species of monkey? Mandrills are the largest species of monkeys.
2. Where do monkeys like to live? So naturally, monkeys want to live in trees.
3. True or false? Apes are monkeys. Apes are not monkeys, although many people think they are.
4. Do all monkeys have tails? Yes! Although some monkeys’ tails look like stumps.
5. True or False? Monkeys sometimes eat insects. True! They also eat seeds, fruits, and flowers.

What are armadillos?

Armadillos are mammals with their back, head, legs, and tail covered in bony plates.

They got the name from their unique look, which translated from Spanish means ‘little armored one. Armadillos are the only animals in the world with their bodies covered in shells to protect them against enemies and dangers.

Armadillos also have sticky tongues. This is so that they can extract insects and termites from small tunnels that are too hard to reach with their claws. They vary in color – they can be brown, salmon, black, red, grey, or even yellowish.

Length is another armadillo feature that can largely vary. Some species of armadillo can be as small as 6 inches, and some can grow as long as 5 feet. That’s the average height of a 12-year-old boy!

They are related to sloths and anteaters and live in the tropical parts of South and North America. There are 20 species of armadillos, and most of them spend their lives in open spaces, but some can also be found in forests. Besides their plates, armadillos have strong and short legs and curved claws that help them dig for food.

Why are armadillos mammals?

Armadillos look very different from other mammals, so why are armadillos mammals? The key features that make armadillos mammals are that they have hair, produce milk, and nurse their young.

Most other features of armadillos are distinctively different from those of other mammals:

-Armadillos have very small eyes that are covered by skin and scales

-Their ears are small and round with no external pinna

-Armadillos walk on the soles of their feet, which have leathery padding for extra protection

-They also use their tail for balance during locomotion (they walk quadrupedally)

-Armadillos have claws for digging instead of nails found in most animals, including other mammals

It is also important to note that fossil evidence shows the presence of osteoderms (bony plates embedded in skin) in extinct mammal relatives. These bony plates are seen in armadillos today.

What is an armadillo habitat like?

Armadillos live in North America and South America. An armadillo habitat comprises warm and temperate weather in ecosystems like rainforests, grasslands, and semi-deserts. They cannot survive in cold environments because they have a low metabolic rate and a lack of fat stores. This means an armadillo habitat must be warm and mild. Periods of intemperate weather can wipe out whole armadillo populations.

An armadillo’s habitat can vary greatly. They can survive and adapt in different habitats because they mostly live in burrows under the ground, protecting them from the temperatures above the ground. However, they can easily defend themselves with their shells when out of their burrows. Here are some of the main types of places where armadillos inhabit and thrive in:

Rainforests

A popular armadillo habitat is the Amazon Rainforest. There are four layers in a rainforest:

• The shrub layer (the forest floor)
• The under-canopy or understory layer
• The canopy
• The emergent layer (the top of the trees)

Armadillo’s habitats are located in the shrub layer of the rainforest, on the ground. They enjoy inhabiting rainforests because of the warm climate and the range of food available.

Semi-deserts

Armadillos can survive in semi-deserts, like in the more arid regions of North America, such as Utah and Arizona. They stay in desert conditions because they enjoy the warm temperatures and spend most of their time underground in burrows. Their shells also help to protect them from the heat.

What do armadillos eat?

Armadillos spend most of their days sleeping (they can sleep for as much as 16 hours a day). When they aren’t sleeping, they’re probably foraging for food.

These unique creatures are omnivores. They eat beetles, ants, termites, and other small insects. Because of their bad eyesight, they rely on their strong sense of smell to help them search for food. Their strong claws allow them to dig for their food, and they enable them to break open termite mounds.

Armadillos also sometimes eat small vertebrates, plants, and some fruit, as well as an occasional carrion meal. Carrion is the decaying flesh of dead animals.

Where do armadillos fall in the food chain?

Armadillos are consumers in their food chain. They rely on the supply of food that they eat to keep them alive. As mentioned before, they eat small bugs, insects, and termites, so they come above these creatures in the food chain.

Armadillos are not at the top of their food chain. But, of course, the animals that prey on armadillos depend on the type of armadillo habitat. Animals can hunt them, like wild dogs, cougars, raccoons, and coyotes. Hawks, owls, and feral pigs have also been known to prey on younger armadillos.

When an armadillo feels threatened, it can roll up into a ball so predators cannot hurt them.

Threats to armadillos

Armadillos are considered to be a species that is at risk. This is because they are widely consumed and considered a delicacy in some cultures across Central and South America.

The destruction of the armadillo habitat also endangers the armadillo population. The rapid collapse of forests, rainforests, and savanna areas for the expansion of agriculture mean that armadillos are losing their habitats. It is thought that approximately 50% of the Giant Armadillo’s habitat has been lost in the last ten years.

Top 10 Armadillos Facts for Kids:

1. Armadillos have different colors. Some are salmon-colored, while others are red, grey, black, or yellow.
2. They also have different sizes. They can measure from 15 centimeters to 1.5 meters
3. Not all armadillos can transform their body into hard balls when they are scared. Of 20 species alive, only the Three-Banded Armadillo can curl its head and feet to escape danger inside its shell.
4. Armadillos spend most of their days sleeping. They can sleep for as many as 16 hours a day!
5. Their armor is hardened skin, similar to the material covering our nails.
6. Armadillos can walk underwater and hold their breath for up to 6 minutes!
7. They have a sticky tongue that helps them extract insects and termites that are too hard to reach with the claws in the ground.
8. They live in holes in the ground and are typically active at night.
9. Most armadillos have little hairs on their underparts, but the Pink Fairy Armadillo has white hair on the sides.
10. They don’t have very good eyesight, but they have a fantastic sense of smell to compensate.